Barends, R., Hajenius, M., Gao, J. R., & Klapwijk, T. M. (2005). Current-induced vortex unbinding in bolometer mixers. Appl. Phys. Lett., 87, 263506 (1 to 3).
Abstract: We present a description of the current-voltage characteristics of hot electron bolometers in terms of the current-dependent intrinsic resistive transition of NbN films. We find that, by including this current dependence, we can correctly predict the complete current-voltage characteristics, showing excellent agreement with measurements for both low and high bias and for small as well as large devices. It is assumed that the current dependence is due to vortex-antivortex unbinding as described in the Berezinskii–Kosterlitz–Thouless theory. The presented approach will be useful in guiding device optimization for noise and bandwidth.
Keywords: HEB mixer numerical model, HEB model, IV-curves, vortex-antivortex, Berezinskii–Kosterlitz–Thouless theory, diffusion cooling channel, diffusion channel, distributed HEB model, distributed model, self-heating effect, temperature profile
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Nebosis, R. S., Semenov, A. D., Gousev, Y. P., & Renk, K. F. (1996). Rigorous analysis of a superconducting hot-electron bolometer mixer: theory and comparision with experiment. In Proc. 7th Int. Symp. Space Terahertz Technol. (pp. 601–613). Charlottesville, Virginia, USA.
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Risacher, C., Meledin, D., Belitsky, V., & Bergman, P. (2009). First 1.3 THz observations at the APEX telescope. In Proc. 20th Int. Symp. Space Terahertz Technol. (pp. 54–61).
Abstract: The Atacama Pathfinder EXperiment (APEX) 12m telescope is operating on the Llano Chajnantor, Chile, since 2003 and a set of state of the art sub-millimeter receivers have been installed for frequencies spanning from 150 GHz to 1500 GHz. In 2008, a balanced 1.3 THz Hot Electron Bolometer (HEB) receiver was installed for the atmospheric window 1250-1380 GHz. This instrument is part of a 4-channel receiver cryostat with the other channels being 211-275 GHz, 275-370 GHz and 380-500 GHz Sideband Separating (SSB) SIS receivers. This paper presents the first observations obtained so far with the 1.3 THz band during its first months of operation. The sky measurements were taken during opportunistic commissioning and science verification phases, when the weather conditions were sufficiently good with a Precipitable Water Vapor (PWV) below 0.25 mm, which was the case only a few nights during these months. We present the first observations of the molecular transition CO J=(11-10) line on different sources such as Orion-FIR4, CW-Leo and SgrB2(M). We describe the many challenges and difficulties encountered for achieving successful THz observations from a large sub-millimeter ground-based telescope.
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Zhang, W., Khosropanah, P., Gao, J. R., Kollberg, E. L., Yngvesson, K. S., Bansal, T., et al. (2010). Quantum noise in a terahertz hot electron bolometer mixer. Appl. Phys. Lett., 96(11), 111113–(1–3).
Abstract: We have measured the noise temperature of a single, sensitive superconducting NbN hot electron bolometer (HEB) mixer in a frequency range from 1.6 to 5.3 THz, using a setup with all the key components in vacuum. By analyzing the measured receiver noise temperature using a quantum noise (QN) model for HEB mixers, we confirm the effect of QN. The QN is found to be responsible for about half of the receiver noise at the highest frequency in our measurements. The beta-factor (the quantum efficiency of the HEB) obtained experimentally agrees reasonably well with the calculated value.
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Huebers, H. - W., Pavlov, S., Semenov, A., Köhler, R., Mahler, L., Tredicucci, A., et al. (2005). Terahertz quantum cascade laser as local oscillator in a heterodyne receiver. Optics Express, 13(15), 5890–5896.
Abstract: Terahertz quantum cascade lasers have been investigated with respect to their performance as a local oscillator in a heterodyne receiver. The beam profile has been measured and transformed in to a close to Gaussian profile resulting in a good matching between the field patterns of the quantum cascade laser and the antenna of a superconducting hot electron bolometric mixer. Noise temperature measurements with the hot electron bolometer and a 2.5 THz quantum cascade laser yielded the same result as with a gas laser as local oscillator.
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Rabanus, D., Graf, U. U., Philipp, M., Ricken, O., Stutzki, J., Vowinkel, B., et al. (2009). Phase locking of a 1.5 terahertz quantum cascade laser and use as a local oscillator in a heterodyne HEB receiver. Optics Express, 17(3), 1159–1168.
Abstract: We demonstrate for the first time the closure of an electronic phase lock loop for a continuous–wave quantum cascade laser (QCL) at 1.5 THz. The QCL is operated in a closed cycle cryo cooler. We achieved a frequency stability of better than 100 Hz, limited by the resolution bandwidth of the spectrum analyser. The PLL electronics make use of the intermediate frequency (IF) obtained from a hot electron bolometer (HEB) which is downconverted to a PLL IF of 125 MHz. The coarse selection of the longitudinal mode and the fine tuning is achieved via the bias voltage of the QCL. Within a QCL cavity mode, the free-running QCL shows frequency fluctuations of about 5 MHz, which the PLL circuit is able to control via the Stark–shift of the QCL gain material. Temperature dependent tuning is shown to be nonlinear, and of the order of -16 MHz/K. Additionally we have used the QCL as local oscillator (LO) to pump an HEB and perform, again for the first time at 1.5 THz, a heterodyne experiment, and obtain a receiver noise temperature of 1741 K.
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Ryabchun, S., Tong, C. - Y. E., Paine, S., Lobanov, Y., Blundell, R., & Goltsman, G. (2009). Temperature resolution of an HEB receiver at 810 GHz. IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond., 19(3), 293–296.
Abstract: We present the results of direct measurements of the temperature resolution of an HEB receiver operating at 810 GHz, in both continuum and spectroscopic modes. In the continuum mode, the input of the receiver was switched between black bodies with different physical temperatures. With a system noise temperature of around 1100 K, the receiver was able to resolve loads which differed in temperature by about 1 K over an integration time of 5 seconds. This resolution is significantly worse than the value of 0.07 K given by the radiometer equation. In the spectroscopic mode, a gas cell filled with carbonyl sulphide (OCS) gas was used and the emission line at 813.3537060 GHz was measured using the receiver in conjunction with a digital spectrometer. From the observed spectra, we determined that the measurement uncertainty of the equivalent emission temperature was 2.8 K for an integration time of 0.25 seconds and a spectral resolution of 12 MHz, compared to a 1.4 K temperature resolution given by the radiometer equation. This relative improvement is due to the fact that at short integration times the contribution from 1/f noise and drift are less dominant. In both modes, the temperature resolution was improved by about 40% with the use of a feedback loop which adjusted the level of an injected microwave radiation to maintain a constant operating current of the HEB mixer. This stabilization scheme has proved to be very effective to keep the temperature resolution of the HEB receiver to close to the theoretical value given by the radiometer equation.
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Tretyakov, I., Ryabchun, S., Finkel, M., Maslennikova, A., Kaurova, N., Lobastova, A., et al. (2011). Low noise and wide bandwidth of NbN hot-electron bolometer mixers. Appl. Phys. Lett., 98, 033507 (1 to 3).
Abstract: We report a record double sideband noise temperature of 600 K (5hν/kB) offered by a NbN hot-electron bolometer receiver at 2.5 THz. Allowing for standing wave effects, this value was found to be constant in the intermediate frequency range 1–7 GHz, which indicates that the mixer has an unprecedentedly large noise bandwidth in excess of 7 GHz. The insight into this is provided by gain bandwidth measurements performed at the superconducting transition. They show that the dependence of the bandwidth on the mixer length follows the model for an HEB mixer with diffusion and phonon cooling of the hot electrons.
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Масленникова, А. В., Рябчун, С. А., Финкель, М. И., Каурова, Н. С., Исупова, А. А., Воронов, Б. М., et al. (2011). Широкополосные смесители на горячих электронах на основе NbN наноструктур. Труды МФТИ, 3(2), 31–34.
Abstract: Мы приводим данные исследования полосы преобразования смесителей на горячих электронах (hot-electron bolometer, НЕВ), изготовленных на основе тонких пленок NbN. Зависимость полосы преобразования от длины смесительного элемента находится в прекрасном согласии с результатами теоретической модели HEB-смесителя, в котором энергетическая релаксация электронов одновременно происходит по двум каналам: фононному и диффузионному.
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de Lange, G., Krieg, J. - M., Honingh, N., Karpov, A., & Cherednichenko, S. (2008). Performance of the HIFI flight mixers. In Proc. 19th Int. Symp. Space Terahertz Technol. (pp. 98–105).
Abstract: We summarize the technology and final results of the superconducting heterodyne SIS and HEB mixers that are developed for the HIFI instrument. Within HIFI 7 frequency bands cover the frequency range from 480 GHz to 1910 GHz. We describe the different device technologies and optical coupling schemes that are used to cover the frequency bands. The efforts of the different mixer teams that participate in HIFI have contributed to an instrument that will have unprecedented sensitivity and frequency coverage.
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