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Schwaab, G.W.; Sirmain, G.; Schubert, J.; Hubers, H.-W.; Gol'tsman, G.; Cherednichenko, S.; Verevkin, A.; Voronov, B.; Gershenzon, E. |
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Title |
Investigation of NbN phonon-cooled HEB mixers at 2.5 THz |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
1999 |
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IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond. |
Abbreviated Journal |
IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond. |
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Volume |
9 |
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2 |
Pages |
4233-4236 |
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NbN HEB mixers |
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The development of superconducting hot electron bolometric (HEB) mixers has been a big step forward in the direction of quantum noise limited mixer performance at THz frequencies. Such mixers are crucial for the upcoming generation of airborne and spaceborne THz heterodyne receivers. In this paper we report on new results on a phonon-cooled NbN HEB mixer using e-beam lithography. The superconducting film is 3 nm thick. The mixer is 0.2 μm long and 1.5 μm wide and it is integrated in a spiral antenna on a Si substrate. The device is quasi-optically coupled through a Si lens and a dielectric beam combiner to the radiation of an optically pumped FIR ring gas laser cavity. The performance of the mixer at different THz frequencies from 0.69 to 2.55 THz with an emphasis on 2.52 THz is demonstrated. At 2.52 THz minimum DSB noise temperatures of 4200 K have been achieved at an IF of 1.5 GHz and a bandwidth of 40 MHz with the mixer mounted in a cryostat and a 0.8 m long signal path in air. |
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1051-8223 |
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550 |
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Meledin, Denis; Pavolotsky, Alexey; Desmaris, Vincent.; Lapkin, Igor; Risacher, Christophe; Perez, Victor; Henke, Douglas; Nystrom, Olle; Sundin, Erik; Dochev, Dimitar; Pantaleev, Miroslav; Fredrixon, Mathias; Strandberg, Magnus; Voronov, Boris; Goltsman, Gregory; Belitsky, Victor |
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A 1.3-THz balanced waveguide HEB mixer for the APEX telescope |
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2009 |
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IEEE Trans. Microw. Theory Techn. |
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57 |
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1 |
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89-98 |
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HEB, mixer, waveguide, balanced, NbN |
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In this paper, we report about the development, fabrication, and characterization of a balanced waveguide hot electron bolometer (HEB) receiver for the Atacama Pathfinder EXperiment telescope covering the frequency band of 1.25–1.39 THz. The receiver uses a quadrature balanced scheme and two HEB mixers, fabricated from 4- to 5-nm-thick NbN film deposited on crystalline quartz substrate with an MgO buffer layer in between. We employed a novel micromachining method to produce all-metal waveguide parts at submicrometer accuracy (the main-mode waveguide dimensions are 90×180 μm). We present details on the mixer design and measurement results, including receiver noise performance, stability and “first-light†at the telescope site. The receiver yields a double-sideband noise temperature averaged over the RF band below 1200 K, and outstanding stability with a spectroscopic Allan time more than 200 s. |
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0018-9480 |
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RPLAB @ lobanovyury @ |
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554 |
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Cherednichenko, Sergey; Drakinskiy, Vladimir; Berg, Therese; Kollberg, Erik L.; Angelov, Iltcho |
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The direct detection effect in the hot-electron bolometer mixer sensitivity calibration |
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2007 |
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IEEE Trans. Microw. Theory Techn. |
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55 |
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3 |
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504-510 |
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HEB, mixer, direct detection effect |
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RPLAB @ lobanovyury @ |
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555 |
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Burke, P. J.; Schoelkopf, R. J.; Prober, D. E.; Skalare, A.; Karasik, B. S.; Gaidis, M. C.; McGrath, W. R.; Bumble, B.; LeDuc, H. G. |
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Mixing and noise in diffusion and phonon cooled superconducting hot-electron bolometers |
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1999 |
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J. Appl. Phys. |
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85 |
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3 |
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1644-1653 |
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HEB, mixer |
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0021-8979 |
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556 |
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Gao, J. R.; Hajenius, M.; Yang, Z. Q.; Baselmans, J. J. A.; Khosropanah, P.; Barends, R.; Klapwijk, T. M. |
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Terahertz superconducting hot electron bolometer heterodyne receivers |
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Journal Article |
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2007 |
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IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond. |
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17 |
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2 |
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252-258 |
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HEB, mixer, direct detection effect |
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We highlight the progress on NbN hot electron bolometer (HEB) mixers achieved through fruitful collaboration between SRON Netherlands Institute for Space Research and Delft University of Technology, the Netherlands. This includes the best receiver noise temperatures of 700 K at 1.63 THz using a twin-slot antenna mixer and 1050 K at 2.84 THz using a spiral antenna coupled HEB mixer. The mixers are based on thin NbN films on Si and fabricated with a new contact-process and-structure. By reducing their areas HEB mixers have shown an LO power requirement as low as 30 nW. Those small HEB mixers have demonstrated equivalent sensitivity as those with large areas provided the direct detection effect due to broadband radiation is removed. To manifest that a HEB based heterodyne receiver can in practice be used at arbitrary frequencies above 2 THz, we demonstrate a 2.8 THz receiver using a THz quantum cascade laser (QCL) as local oscillator. |
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1051-8223 |
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RPLAB @ asmirn @ |
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557 |
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Ryabchun, Sergey; Tong, Cheuk-Yu Edward; Blundell, Raymond; Gol'tsman, Gregory |
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Stabilization scheme for hot-electron bolometer receivers using microwave radiation |
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Journal Article |
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2009 |
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IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond. |
Abbreviated Journal |
IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond. |
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Volume |
19 |
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1 |
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14-19 |
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HEB, mixer, Allan variance, stabilization, radiometer equation |
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We present the results of a stabilization scheme for terahertz receivers based on NbN hot-electron bolometer (HEB) mixers that uses microwave radiation with a frequency much lower than the gap frequency of NbN to compensate for mixer current fluctuations. A feedback control loop, which actively controls the power level of the injected microwave radiation, has successfully been implemented to stabilize the operating point of the HEB mixer. This allows us to increase the receiver Allan time to 10 s and also improve the temperature resolution of the receiver by about 30% in the total power mode of operation. |
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1051-8223 |
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RPLAB @ lobanovyury @ |
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559 |
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Cherednichenko, S.; Drakinskiy, V.; Baubert, J.; Krieg, J.-M.; Voronov, B.; Gol'tsman, G.; Desmaris, V. |
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Gain bandwidth of NbN hot-electron bolometer terahertz mixers on 1.5 μm Si3N4 / SiO2 membranes |
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Journal Article |
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2007 |
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J. Appl. Phys. |
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J. Appl. Phys. |
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101 |
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12 |
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124508 (1 to 6) |
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HEB, mixer, membrane |
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The gain bandwidth of NbN hot-electron bolometer terahertz mixers on electrically thin Si3N4/SiO2 membranes was experimentally investigated and compared with that of HEB mixers on bulk substrates. A gain bandwidth of 3.5 GHz is achieved on bulk silicon, whereas the gain bandwidth is reduced down to 0.6–0.9 GHz for mixers on 1.5 μm Si3N4/SiO2 membranes. We show that application of a MgO buffer layer on the membrane extends the gain bandwidth to 3 GHz. The experimental data were analyzed using the film-substrate acoustic mismatch approach. |
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0021-8979 |
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560 |
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Cherednichenko, S.; Drakinskiy, V.; Baubert, J.; Lecomte, B.; Dauplay, F.; Krieg, J. M.; Delorme, Y.; Feret, A.; Hübers, H. W.; Semenov, A. D.; Gol'tsman, G. N. |
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Title |
2.5 THz multipixel heterodyne receiver based on NbN HEB mixers |
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Conference Article |
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2006 |
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Proc. SPIE |
Abbreviated Journal |
Proc. SPIE |
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6275 |
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62750I (1 to 11) |
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HEB, mixer, membrane |
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A 16 pixel heterodyne receiver for 2.5 THz has been developed based on NbN superconducting hot-electron bolometer (HEB) mixers. The receiver uses a quasioptical RF coupling approach where HEB mixers are integrated into double dipole antennas on 1.5 µm thick Si3N4/SiO2 membranes. Spherical mirrors (one per pixel) and backshort distance from the antenna have been used to design the output mixer beam profile. The camera design allows all 16 pixel IF readout in parallel. The gain bandwidth of the HEB mixers on Si3N4/SiO2 membranes was found to be 0.7÷0.9 GHz, which is much smaller than for similar devices on silicon. Application of buffer layers and use of alternative types of membranes (e.g. silicon-on-insulator) is under investigation. |
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561 |
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Siddiqi, I.; Prober, D. E. |
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Nb–Au bilayer hot-electron bolometers for low-noise THz heterodyne detection |
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Journal Article |
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2004 |
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Applied Physics Letters |
Abbreviated Journal |
Appl. Phys. Lett. |
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84 |
Issue |
8 |
Pages |
1404 |
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HEB, mixers, dynamic range, saturation, LO power, local oscillator power, Nb |
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The sensitivity of present Nb diffusion-cooled hot-electron bolometer (HEB) mixers is not quantum limited, and can be improved by reducing the superconducting transition temperature TC. Lowering TC reduces thermal fluctuations, resulting in a decrease of the mixer noise temperature TM. However, lower TC mixers have reduced dynamic range and saturate more easily due to background noise. We present 30 GHz microwave measurements on a bilayer HEB system, Nb–Au, in which TC can be tuned with Au layer thickness to obtain the maximum sensitivity for a given noise background. These measurements are intended as a guide for the optimization of THz mixers. Using a Nb–Au mixer with TC = 1.6 K, we obtain TM = 50 K with 2 nW of local oscillator (LO) power. Good mixer performance is observed over a wide range of LO power and bias voltage and such a device should not exhibit saturation in a THz receiver. |
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0003-6951 |
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571 |
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Kawamura, Jonathan; Blundell, Raymond; Tong, C.-Y. Edward; Papa, D. Cosmo; Hunter, Todd R.; Gol'tsman, Gregory; Cherednichenko, Sergei; Voronov, Boris; Gershenzon, Eugene |
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Title |
First light with an 800 GHz phonon-cooled HEB mixer receiver |
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Conference Article |
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1998 |
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Proc. 9th Int. Symp. Space Terahertz Technol. |
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Proc. 9th Int. Symp. Space Terahertz Technol. |
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35-43 |
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HEB, mixer, LO power, local oscillator power, saturation effect, dynamic range |
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Phonon-cooled superconductive hot-electron bolometric (HEB) mixers are incorporated in a waveguide receiver designed to operate near 800 Gliz. The mixer elements are thin-film nio- bium nitride microbridges with dimensions of 4 nm thickness, 0.2 to 0.3 p.m in length and 2 jun in width. At 780 GHz the best receiver noise temperature is 840 K (DSB). The mixer IF bandwidth is 2.0 GHz, the absorbed LO power is —0.1 1.1W. A fixed-tuned version of the re- ceiver was installed at the Submillimeter Telescope Observatory on Mt. Graham, Arizona, to conduct astronomical observations. These observations represent the first time that a receiver incorporating any superconducting HEB mixer has been used to detect a spectral line of celes- tial origin. |
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Pasadena, California, USA |
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572 |
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Kawamura, J.; Blundell, R.; Tong, C.-Y. E.; Papa, D. C.; Hunter, T. R.; Paine, S. N.; Patt, F.; Gol'tsman, G.; Cherednichenko, S.; Voronov, B.; Gershenzon, E. |
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Superconductive hot-electron-bolometer mixer receiver for 800-GHz operation |
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Journal Article |
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2000 |
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IEEE Trans. Microw. Theory Techn. |
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IEEE Trans. Microw. Theory Techn. |
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48 |
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4 |
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683-689 |
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NbN HEB mixers, LO power, local oscillator power, saturation, linearity, dynamic range |
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In this paper, we describe a superconductive hot-electron-bolometer mixer receiver designed to operate in the partially transmissive 350-μm atmospheric window. The receiver employs an NbN thin-film microbridge as the mixer element, in which the main cooling mechanism of the hot electrons is through electron-phonon interaction. At a local-oscillator frequency of 808 GHz, the measured double-sideband receiver noise temperature is TRX=970 K, across a 1-GHz intermediate-frequency bandwidth centered at 1.8 GHz. We have measured the linearity of the receiver and the amount of local-oscillator power incident on the mixer for optimal operation, which is PLO≈1 μW. This receiver was used in making observations as a facility instrument at the Heinrich Hertz Telescope, Mt. Graham, AZ, during the 1998-1999 winter observing season. |
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0018-9480 |
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RPLAB @ lobanovyury @ |
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573 |
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Tong, C.-Y.E.; Meledin, D.V.; Marrone, D.P.; Paine, S.N.; Gibson, H.; Blundell, R. |
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Near field vector beam measurements at 1 THz |
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2003 |
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IEEE Microw. Compon. Lett. |
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13 |
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6 |
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235-237 |
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HEB, mixer, waveguide, LO power, local oscillator power, saturation effect, dynamic range |
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We have performed near-field vector beam measurements at 1.03 THz to characterize and align the receiver optics of a superconducting receiver. The signal source is a harmonic generator mounted on an X-Y translation stage. We model the measured two-dimensional complex beam pattern by a fundamental Gaussian mode, from which we derive the position of the beam center, the beam radius and the direction of propagation. By performing scans in the planes separated by 400 mm, we have confirmed that our beam pattern measurements are highly reliable. |
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1531-1309 |
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RPLAB @ lobanovyury @ |
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574 |
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Cao, Aiqin; Jiang, L.; Chen, S.H.; Antipov, S.V.; Shi, S.C. |
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IF gain bandwidth of a quasi-optical NbN superconducting HEB mixer |
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Conference Article |
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2007 |
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Proc. International conference on microwave and millimeter wave technology |
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Proc. ICMMT |
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1-3 |
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HEB, mixer, gain bandwidth |
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In this paper, the intermediate frequency (IF) gain bandwidth of a quasi-optical NbN superconducting hot-electron bolometer (HEB) mixer is investigated at 500 GHz with an IF system incorporating with a frequency down-converting scheme which is able to sweep the IF signal in a frequency range of 0.3-4 GHz. The IF gain bandwidth of the device is measured to be 1.5 GHz when it is biased at a voltage of the minimum noise temperature, and becomes larger when the bias voltage increases. |
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Builin |
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RPLAB @ lobanovyury @ |
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575 |
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Wei, Jian; Olaya, David; Karasik, Boris S.; Pereverzev, Sergey V.; Sergeev, Andrei V.; Gershenson, Michael E. |
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Ultrasensitive hot-electron nanobolometers for terahertz astrophysics |
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2008 |
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Nature Nanotechnology |
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Nature Nanotech |
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3 |
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8 |
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496-500 |
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HEB, Ti/NbN, single terahertz photons, detection |
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The submillimetre or terahertz region of the electromagnetic spectrum contains approximately half of the total luminosity of the Universe and 98% of all the photons emitted since the Big Bang. This radiation is strongly absorbed in the Earth's atmosphere, so space-based terahertz telescopes are crucial for exploring the evolution of the Universe. Thermal emission from the primary mirrors in these telescopes can be reduced below the level of the cosmic background by active cooling, which expands the range of faint objects that can be observed. However, it will also be necessary to develop bolometers – devices for measuring the energy of electromagnetic radiation—with sensitivities that are at least two orders of magnitude better than the present state of the art. To achieve this sensitivity without sacrificing operating speed, two conditions are required. First, the bolometer should be exceptionally well thermally isolated from the environment;
second, its heat capacity should be sufficiently small. Here we demonstrate that these goals can be achieved by building a superconducting hot-electron nanobolometer. Its design eliminates the energy exchange between hot electrons and the leads by blocking electron outdiffusion and photon emission. The thermal conductance between hot electrons and the thermal bath, controlled by electron–phonon interactions, becomes very small at low temperatures (10-16 WK-1 at 40 mK). These devices, with a heat capacity of 10-19 J K-1, are sufficiently sensitive to detect single terahertz photons in submillimetre astronomy and other applications based on quantum calorimetry and photon counting. |
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1748-3387 |
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576 |
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Maezawa, Hiroyuki |
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Application of superconducting hot-electron bolometer mixers for terahertz-band astronomy |
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2015 |
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IEICE Trans. Electronics |
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98 |
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3 |
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196-206 |
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HEB mixer applications, HEB applications |
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Recently, a next-generation heterodyne mixer detector – a hot electron bolometer (HEB) mixer employing a superconducting microbridge – has gradually opened up terahertz-band astronomy. The surrounding state-of-the-art technologies including fabrication processes, 4 K cryostats, cryogenic low-noise amplifiers, local oscillator sources, micromachining techniques, and spectrometers, as well as the HEB mixers, have played a valuable role in the development of super-low-noise heterodyne spectroscopy systems for the terahertz band. The current developmental status of terahertz-band HEB mixer receivers and their applications for spectroscopy and astronomy with ground-based, airborne, and satellite telescopes are presented. |
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1073 |
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Ryabchun, S. A.; Tretyakov, I. V.; Finkel, M. I.; Maslennikov, S. N.; Kaurova, N. S.; Seleznev, V. A.; Voronov, B. M.; Gol'tsman, G. N. |
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NbN phonon-cooled hot-electron bolometer mixer with additional diffusion cooling |
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Conference Article |
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2009 |
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Proc. 20th Int. Symp. Space Terahertz Technol. |
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Proc. 20th ISSTT |
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151-154 |
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HEB, mixer, bandwidth, noise temperatue, in-situ contacts, in situ contacts |
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Charlottesville, USA |
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590 |
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Tretyakov, I. V.; Ryabchun, S. A.; Maslennikov, S. N.; Finkel, M. I.; Kaurova, N. S.; Seleznev, V. A.; Voronov, B. M.; Gol'tsman, G.N. |
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NbN HEB mixer: fabrication, noise temperature reduction and characterization |
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2008 |
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Proc. Basic problems of superconductivity |
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HEB, mixer, noise temperature, conversion gain bandwidth |
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We demonstrate that in the terahertz region superconducting hot-electron mixers offer the lowest noise temperature, opening the possibility of using HTS's in the future to fabricate these devices. Specifically, a noise temperature of 950 K was measured for the receiver operating at 2.5 THz with a NbN HEB mixer, and a gain bandwidth of 6 GHz was measured at 300 GHz near Tc for the same mixer. |
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Moscow-Zvenigorod |
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591 |
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Финкель, М. И. |
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Терагерцовые смесители на эффекте электронного разогрева в ультратонких плёнках NbN и NbTiN |
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2006 |
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М. МПГУ |
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HEB, detector, mixer, terahertz, THz, infrared, IR, direct detection effect, conversion bandwidth, conversion loss |
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Ph.D. thesis |
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no |
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597 |
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Рябчун, С. А. |
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Широкополосные высокостабильные терагерцовые смесители на горячих электронах из тонких сверхпроводниковых пленок NbN |
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2009 |
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М. МПГУ |
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98 |
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HEB, mixer, terahertz, THz, stability, Allan variance, conversion bandwidth, in-situ technique, Au contacts |
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Ph.D. thesis |
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598 |
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Ryabchun, S. A.; Tretyakov, I. V.; Pentin, I. V.; Kaurova, N. S.; Seleznev, V. A.; Voronov, B. M.; Finkel, M. I.; Maslennikov, S. N.; Gol'tsman, G. N. |
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Low-noise wide-band hot-electron bolometer mixer based on an NbN film |
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2009 |
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Radiophys. Quant. Electron. |
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52 |
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8 |
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576-582 |
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HEB mixer, in-situ contacts, noise temperature, conversion gain bandwidth, diffusion cooling channel |
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We develop and study a hot-electron bolometer mixer made of a two-layer NbN–Au film in situ deposited on a silicon substrate. The double-sideband noise temperature of the mixer is 750 K at a frequency of 2.5 THz. The conversion efficiency measurements show that at the superconducting transition temperature, the intermediate-frequency bandwidth amounts to about 6.5 GHz for a mixer 0.112 μm long. These record-breaking characteristics are attributed to the improved contacts between a sensitive element and a helical antenna and are reached due to using the in situ deposition of NbN and Au layers at certain stages of the process. |
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599 |
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Рябчун, С. А.; Третьяков, И. В.; Пентин, И. В; Каурова, Н. С.; Селезнев, В. А; Воронов, Б. М.; Финкель, М. И.; Масленников, С. Н.; Гольцман, Г. Н. |
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Малошумящий широкополосный терагерцовый смеситель на эффекте электронного разогрева в плёнке NbN |
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2009 |
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Известия высших учебных заведений. Радиофизика |
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52 |
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8 |
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641-648 |
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HEB mixer, in-situ contacts, noise temperature, conversion gain bandwidth, diffusion cooling channel |
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Разработан и исследован смеситель на горячих электронах, изготовленный из двуслойной плёнки NbN-Au, осаждённой на кремневую подложку in situ. Двухполосная шумовая температура устройства составила 750 К на частоте 2.5 ТГц. Измерения эффективности преобразования для смесителя длиной 0.112 мкм вблизи температуры сверхпроводящего перехода показали полосу промежуточных частот около 6.5 ГГц. Эти результаты являются рекордными и были получены за счёт улучшения контактов между чувствительным элементом и спиральной антенной при замене технологического маршрута с нанесением слоёв NbN и Au в отдельных процессах на технологический процесс, в котором данные слои наносятся in situ без нарушения вакуума. |
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600 |
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Barends, R.; Hajenius, M.; Gao, J. R.; Klapwijk, T. M. |
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Current-induced vortex unbinding in bolometer mixers |
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2005 |
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Applied Physics Letters |
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Appl. Phys. Lett. |
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87 |
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263506 (1 to 3) |
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HEB mixer numerical model, HEB model, IV-curves, vortex-antivortex, Berezinskii–Kosterlitz–Thouless theory, diffusion cooling channel, diffusion channel, distributed HEB model, distributed model, self-heating effect, temperature profile |
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We present a description of the current-voltage characteristics of hot electron bolometers in terms of the current-dependent intrinsic resistive transition of NbN films. We find that, by including this current dependence, we can correctly predict the complete current-voltage characteristics, showing excellent agreement with measurements for both low and high bias and for small as well as large devices. It is assumed that the current dependence is due to vortex-antivortex unbinding as described in the Berezinskii–Kosterlitz–Thouless theory. The presented approach will be useful in guiding device optimization for noise and bandwidth. |
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604 |
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Nebosis, R. S.; Semenov, A. D.; Gousev, Yu. P.; Renk, K. F. |
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Rigorous analysis of a superconducting hot-electron bolometer mixer: theory and comparision with experiment |
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1996 |
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Proc. 7th Int. Symp. Space Terahertz Technol. |
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601-613 |
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HEB mixer, model, conversion gain, noise temperature, impedance, 2.5 THz |
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Charlottesville, Virginia, USA |
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605 |
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Risacher, C.; Meledin, D.; Belitsky, V.; Bergman, P. |
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First 1.3 THz observations at the APEX telescope |
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2009 |
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Proc. 20th Int. Symp. Space Terahertz Technol. |
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54-61 |
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balanced HEB mixer noise temperature APEX telescope stability Allan variance aperture efficiency |
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The Atacama Pathfinder EXperiment (APEX) 12m telescope is operating on the Llano Chajnantor, Chile, since 2003 and a set of state of the art sub-millimeter receivers have been installed for frequencies spanning from 150 GHz to 1500 GHz. In 2008, a balanced 1.3 THz Hot Electron Bolometer (HEB) receiver was installed for the atmospheric window 1250-1380 GHz. This instrument is part of a 4-channel receiver cryostat with the other channels being 211-275 GHz, 275-370 GHz and 380-500 GHz Sideband Separating (SSB) SIS receivers. This paper presents the first observations obtained so far with the 1.3 THz band during its first months of operation. The sky measurements were taken during opportunistic commissioning and science verification phases, when the weather conditions were sufficiently good with a Precipitable Water Vapor (PWV) below 0.25 mm, which was the case only a few nights during these months. We present the first observations of the molecular transition CO J=(11-10) line on different sources such as Orion-FIR4, CW-Leo and SgrB2(M). We describe the many challenges and difficulties encountered for achieving successful THz observations from a large sub-millimeter ground-based telescope. |
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619 |
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Zhang, W.; Khosropanah, P.; Gao, J. R.; Kollberg, E. L.; Yngvesson, K. S.; Bansal, T.; Barends, R.; Klapwijk, T. M. |
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Quantum noise in a terahertz hot electron bolometer mixer |
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2010 |
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Applied Physics Letters |
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Appl. Phys. Lett. |
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96 |
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11 |
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111113-(1-3) |
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HEB mixer, quantum limit, quantum noise, vacuum box, THz, Terahertz |
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We have measured the noise temperature of a single, sensitive superconducting NbN hot electron bolometer (HEB) mixer in a frequency range from 1.6 to 5.3 THz, using a setup with all the key components in vacuum. By analyzing the measured receiver noise temperature using a quantum noise (QN) model for HEB mixers, we confirm the effect of QN. The QN is found to be responsible for about half of the receiver noise at the highest frequency in our measurements. The beta-factor (the quantum efficiency of the HEB) obtained experimentally agrees reasonably well with the calculated value. |
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Huebers, Heinz-Wilhelm; Pavlov, S.; Semenov, A.; Köhler, R.; Mahler, L.; Tredicucci, A.; Beere, H.; Ritchie, D.; Linfield, E. |
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Terahertz quantum cascade laser as local oscillator in a heterodyne receiver |
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2005 |
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Optics Express |
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13 |
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15 |
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5890-5896 |
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QCL heterodyne, 6 mW at 2.5 THz, HEB mixer, terahertz |
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Terahertz quantum cascade lasers have been investigated with respect to their performance as a local oscillator in a heterodyne receiver. The beam profile has been measured and transformed in to a close to Gaussian profile resulting in a good matching between the field patterns of the quantum cascade laser and the antenna of a superconducting hot electron bolometric mixer. Noise temperature measurements with the hot electron bolometer and a 2.5 THz quantum cascade laser yielded the same result as with a gas laser as local oscillator. |
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Rabanus, D.; Graf, U. U.; Philipp, M.; Ricken, O.; Stutzki, J.; Vowinkel, B.; Wiedner, M. C.; Walther, C.; Fischer, M.; Faist, J. |
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Title |
Phase locking of a 1.5 terahertz quantum cascade laser and use as a local oscillator in a heterodyne HEB receiver |
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2009 |
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Optics Express |
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17 |
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3 |
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1159-1168 |
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QCL heterodyne, 300 uW at 1.5 THz, HEB mixer |
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We demonstrate for the first time the closure of an electronic phase lock loop for a continuous–wave quantum cascade laser (QCL) at 1.5 THz. The QCL is operated in a closed cycle cryo cooler. We achieved a frequency stability of better than 100 Hz, limited by the resolution bandwidth of the spectrum analyser. The PLL electronics make use of the intermediate frequency (IF) obtained from a hot electron bolometer (HEB) which is downconverted to a PLL IF of 125 MHz. The coarse selection of the longitudinal mode and the fine tuning is achieved via the bias voltage of the QCL. Within a QCL cavity mode, the free-running QCL shows frequency fluctuations of about 5 MHz, which the PLL circuit is able to control via the Stark–shift of the QCL gain material. Temperature dependent tuning is shown to be nonlinear, and of the order of -16 MHz/K. Additionally we have used the QCL as local oscillator (LO) to pump an HEB and perform, again for the first time at 1.5 THz, a heterodyne experiment, and obtain a receiver noise temperature of 1741 K. |
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Ryabchun, Sergey; Tong, Cheuk-Yu Edward; Paine, Scott; Lobanov, Yury; Blundell, Raymond; Goltsman, Gregory |
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Temperature resolution of an HEB receiver at 810 GHz |
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2009 |
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IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond. |
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IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond. |
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19 |
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3 |
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293-296 |
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HEB mixer |
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We present the results of direct measurements of the temperature resolution of an HEB receiver operating at 810 GHz, in both continuum and spectroscopic modes. In the continuum mode, the input of the receiver was switched between black bodies with different physical temperatures. With a system noise temperature of around 1100 K, the receiver was able to resolve loads which differed in temperature by about 1 K over an integration time of 5 seconds. This resolution is significantly worse than the value of 0.07 K given by the radiometer equation. In the spectroscopic mode, a gas cell filled with carbonyl sulphide (OCS) gas was used and the emission line at 813.3537060 GHz was measured using the receiver in conjunction with a digital spectrometer. From the observed spectra, we determined that the measurement uncertainty of the equivalent emission temperature was 2.8 K for an integration time of 0.25 seconds and a spectral resolution of 12 MHz, compared to a 1.4 K temperature resolution given by the radiometer equation. This relative improvement is due to the fact that at short integration times the contribution from 1/f noise and drift are less dominant. In both modes, the temperature resolution was improved by about 40% with the use of a feedback loop which adjusted the level of an injected microwave radiation to maintain a constant operating current of the HEB mixer. This stabilization scheme has proved to be very effective to keep the temperature resolution of the HEB receiver to close to the theoretical value given by the radiometer equation. |
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636 |
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Tretyakov, Ivan; Ryabchun, Sergey; Finkel, Matvey; Maslennikova, Anna; Kaurova, Natalia; Lobastova, Anastasia; Voronov, Boris; Gol'tsman, Gregory |
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Title |
Low noise and wide bandwidth of NbN hot-electron bolometer mixers |
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Journal Article |
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2011 |
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Appl. Phys. Lett. |
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Appl. Phys. Lett. |
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98 |
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033507 (1 to 3) |
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NbN HEB mixer |
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We report a record double sideband noise temperature of 600 K (5hν/kB) offered by a NbN hot-electron bolometer receiver at 2.5 THz. Allowing for standing wave effects, this value was found to be constant in the intermediate frequency range 1–7 GHz, which indicates that the mixer has an unprecedentedly large noise bandwidth in excess of 7 GHz. The insight into this is provided by gain bandwidth measurements performed at the superconducting transition. They show that the dependence of the bandwidth on the mixer length follows the model for an HEB mixer with diffusion and phonon cooling of the hot electrons. |
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RPLAB @ gujma @ |
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638 |
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Масленникова, А. В.; Рябчун, С. А.; Финкель, М. И.; Каурова, Н. С.; Исупова, А. А.; Воронов, Б. М.; Гольцман, Г. Н. |
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Title |
Широкополосные смесители на горячих электронах на основе NbN наноструктур |
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Journal Article |
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2011 |
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Труды Московского физико-технического института |
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Труды МФТИ |
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3 |
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2 |
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31-34 |
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HEB mixer |
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Мы приводим данные исследования полосы преобразования смесителей на горячих электронах (hot-electron bolometer, НЕВ), изготовленных на основе тонких пленок NbN. Зависимость полосы преобразования от длины смесительного элемента находится в прекрасном согласии с результатами теоретической модели HEB-смесителя, в котором энергетическая релаксация электронов одновременно происходит по двум каналам: фононному и диффузионному. |
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RPLAB @ gujma @ |
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646 |
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de Lange, Gert; Krieg, Jean-Michel; Honingh, Netty; Karpov, Alexandre; Cherednichenko, Sergey |
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Performance of the HIFI flight mixers |
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Conference Article |
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2008 |
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Proc. 19th Int. Symp. Space Terahertz Technol. |
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98-105 |
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HEB mixer applications, HEB applications |
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We summarize the technology and final results of the superconducting heterodyne SIS and HEB mixers that are developed for the HIFI instrument. Within HIFI 7 frequency bands cover the frequency range from 480 GHz to 1910 GHz. We describe the different device technologies and optical coupling schemes that are used to cover the frequency bands. The efforts of the different mixer teams that participate in HIFI have contributed to an instrument that will have unprecedented sensitivity and frequency coverage. |
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Groningen |
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1074 |
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Tret’yakov, I. V.; Ryabchun, S. A.; Kaurova, N. S.; Larionov, P. A.; Lobastova, A. A.; Voronov, B. M.; Finkel, M. I.; Gol’tsman, G. N. |
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Optimum absorbed heterodyne power for superconducting NbN hot-electron bolometer mixer |
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Journal Article |
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2010 |
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Tech. Phys. Lett. |
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Tech. Phys. Lett. |
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36 |
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12 |
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1103-1105 |
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NbN HEB mixer |
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Absorbed heterodyne power has been measured in a low-noise broadband hot-electron bolometer (HEB) mixer for the terahertz range, operating on the effect of electron heating in the resistive state of an ultrathin superconducting NbN film. It is established that the optimum absorbed heterodyne power for the HEB mixer operating at 2.5 THz is about 100 nW. |
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1063-7850 |
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1389 |
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Братман, В.Л.; Литвак, А.Г.; Суворов, Е.В. |
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Освоение терагерцевого диапазона: источники и приложения |
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Journal Article |
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2010 |
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Успехи физических наук |
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Успехи физ. наук |
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181 |
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8 |
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867–874 |
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HEB |
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RPLAB @ gujma @ |
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674 |
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Пентин, И. В.; Смирнов, К. В.; Вахтомин, Ю. Б.; Смирнов, А. В.; Ожегов, Р. В.; Дивочий, А. В.; Гольцман, Г. Н. |
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Быстродействующий терагерцевый приемник и инфракрасный счетчик одиночных фотонов на эффекте разогрева электронов в сверхпроводниковых тонкопленочных наноструктурах |
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2011 |
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Труды МФТИ |
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Труды МФТИ |
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3 |
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2 |
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38-42 |
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SSPD, SNSPD, HEB |
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Представлены результаты создания приемных систем терагерцевого диапазона (0.3-70 ТГц), обладающих рекордным быстродействием (50 пс) и высокой чувствительностью (до 5x 10^(-14) Вт/Гц^(1/2)), а также однофотонных приемных систем ближнего инфракрасного диапазона с квантовой эффективностью 25 %, уровнем темнового счета 10-1c., максимальной скоростью счета ~ 100 МГц и временным разрешением до 50 пс. |
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RPLAB @ gujma @ |
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707 |
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Tretyakov, Ivan; Ryabchun, Sergey; Finkel, Matvey; Maslennikov, Sergey; Maslennikova, Anna; Kaurova, Natalia; Lobastova, Anastasia; Voronov, Boris; Gol'tsman, Gregory |
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Ultrawide noise bandwidth of NbN hot-electron bolometer mixers with in situ gold contacts |
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2011 |
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IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond. |
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21 |
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3 |
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620-623 |
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NbN HEB mixer bandwidth |
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We report a noise bandwidth of 7 GHz in the new generation of NbN hot-electron bolometer (HEB) mixers that are being developed for the space observatory Millimetron. The HEB receiver driven by a 2.5-THz local oscillator offered a noise temperature of 600 K in a 50-MHz final detection bandwidth. As the filter center frequency was swept this value remained nearly constant up to the cutoff frequency of the cryogenic amplifier at 7 GHz. We believe that such a low value of the noise temperature is due to reduced radio frequency (RF) loss at the interface between the superconducting film and the gold contacts. We have also performed gain bandwidth measurements at the superconducting transition on HEB mixers with various lengths and found them to be in excellent agreement with the results of the analytical and numerical models developed for the HEB mixer with both diffusion and phonon cooling of hot electrons. |
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RPLAB @ gujma @ |
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716 |
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Lobanov, Y.; Tong, E.; Blundell, R.; Hedden, A.; Voronov, B.; Gol'tsman, G. |
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Large-signal frequency response of an HEB mixer: from 300 MHz to terahertz |
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Journal Article |
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2011 |
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IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond. |
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21 |
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3 |
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628-631 |
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waveguide NbN HEB mixers |
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We present a study of the large signal frequency response of an HEB mixer over a wide frequency range. In our experiments, we have subjected the HEB mixer to incident electromagnetic radiation from 0.3 GHz to 1 THz. The mixer element is an NbN film deposited on crystalline quartz. The mixer chip is mounted in a waveguide cavity, coupled to free space with a diagonal horn. At microwave frequencies, electromagnetic radiation is applied through the coaxial bias port of the mixer block. At higher frequencies the input signal passes via the diagonal horn feed. At each frequency, the incident power is varied and a family of I-V curves is recorded. From the curves we identify 3 distinct regimes of operation of the mixer separated by the phonon relaxation frequency and the superconducting energy gap frequency observed at about 3 GHz and 660 GHz respectively. In this paper, we will present observed curves and discuss the results of our experiment. |
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RPLAB @ gujma @ |
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719 |
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Lobanov, Y.V.; Tong, C.-Y.E.; Hedden, A.S.; Blundell, R.; Voronov, B.M.; Gol'tsman, G.N. |
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Direct measurement of the gain and noise bandwidths of HEB mixers |
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Journal Article |
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2011 |
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IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond. |
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IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond. |
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21 |
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3 |
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645-648 |
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waveguide NbN HEB mixers |
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The intermediate frequency (IF) bandwidth of a hot electron bolometer (HEB) mixer is an important parameter of the mixer, in that it helps to determine its suitability for a given application. With the availability of wideband low noise amplifiers, it is simple to measure the performance of an HEB mixer over a wide range of IF at a fixed LO frequency using the standard Y-factor method. This in-situ method allows us to measure both the gain and noise bandwidths simultaneously. We have also measured mixer output impedance with a vector network analyser. Intrinsic time constant has been extracted from the impedance data and compared to the mixer's bandwidths determined from receiver Y-factor measurement. |
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RPLAB @ gujma @ |
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720 |
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Lobanov, Y.; Tong, C.; Blundell, R.; Gol'tsman, G. |
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A study of direct detection effect on the linearity of hot electron bolometer mixers |
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2009 |
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Proc. 20th Int. Symp. Space Terahertz Technol. |
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Proc. 20th ISSTT |
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282-287 |
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HEB mixer, direct detection effect |
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We have performed a study of how direct detection affects the linearity and hence the calibration of an HEB mixer. Two types of waveguide HEB devices have been used: a 0.8 THz HEB mixer and a 1.0 THz HEB mixer which is ~5 times smaller than the former. Two independent experimental approaches were used. In the ΔG/G method, the conversion gain of the HEB mixer is first measured as a function of the bias current for a number of bias voltages. At each bias setting, we carefully measure the change in the operating current when the input loads are switched. From the measured data, we can derive the expected difference in gain between the hot and cold loads. In the second method (injection method [1]), the linearity of the HEB mixer is independently measured by injecting a modulated signal for different input load temperatures. The results of both approaches confirm that there is gain compression in the operation of HEB mixers. Based on the results of our measurements, we discuss the impact of direct detection effects on the operation of HEB mixers. |
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RPLAB @ gujma @ |
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724 |
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Lobanov, Y. V.; Tong, Cheuk-Yu E.; Hedden, A. S.; Blundell, R.; Gol'tsman, G. N. |
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Title |
Microwave-assisted슠measurement슠of the슠frequency슠response슠of슠terahertz슠HEB슠mixers슠with a슠fourier슠transform슠spectrometer |
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Conference Article |
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Year |
2010 |
Publication |
21st International Symposium on Space Terahertz Technology |
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21st ISSTT |
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420-423 |
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HEB mixer |
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We describe a novel method of operation of the HEB direct detector for use with a Fourier Transform Spectrometer. Instead of elevating the bath temperature, we have measured the RF response of waveguide HEB mixers by applying microwave radiation to select appropriate bias conditions. In our experiment, a microwave signal is injected into the HEB mixer via its IF port. By choosing an appropriate injection level, the device can be operated close to the desired operating point. Furthermore, we have shown that both thermal biasing and microwave injection can reproduce the same spectral response of the HEB mixer. However, with the use of microwave injection, there is no need to wait for the mixer to reach thermal equilibrium, so characterisation can be done in less time. Also, the liquid helium consumption for our wet cryostat is also reduced. We have demonstrated that the signalto-noise ratio of the FTS measurements can be improved with microwave injection. |
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RPLAB @ gujma @ |
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725 |
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Ожегов, Роман Викторович |
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Флуктуационная чувствительность и стабильность приемников с СИС и HEB смесителями для терагерцового тепловидения |
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Journal Article |
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2011 |
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Радиофизика |
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135 |
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HEB |
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RPLAB @ gujma @ |
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731 |
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Burke, P. J.; Schoelkopf, R. J.; Prober, D. E.; Skalare, A.; Karasik, B. S.; Gaidis, M. C.; McGrath, W. R.; Bumble, B.; Leduc, H. G. |
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Title |
Spectrum of thermal fluctuation noise in diffusion and phonon cooled hot-electron mixers |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
1998 |
Publication |
Applied Physics Letters |
Abbreviated Journal |
Appl. Phys. Lett. |
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Volume |
72 |
Issue |
12 |
Pages |
1516-1518 |
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HEB mixer; thermal fluctuation noise; TFN |
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A systematic study of the intermediate frequency noise bandwidth of Nb thin-film superconducting hot-electron bolometers is presented. We have measured the spectrum of the output noise as well as the conversion efficiency over a very broad intermediate frequency range (from 0.1 to 7.5 GHz) for devices varying in length from 0.08 μm to 3 μm. Local oscillator and rf signals from 8 to 40 GHz were used. For a device of a given length, the spectrum of the output noise and the conversion efficiency behave similarly for intermediate frequencies less than the gain bandwidth, in accordance with a simple thermal model for both the mixing and thermal fluctuation noise. For higher intermediate frequencies the conversion efficiency decreases; in contrast, the noise decreases but has a second contribution which dominates at higher frequency. The noise bandwidth is larger than the gain bandwidth, and the mixer noise is low, between 120 and 530 K (double side band). |
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RPLAB @ gujma @ |
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760 |
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Kawakami, A; Saito, S.; Hyodo, M. |
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Title |
Fabrication of nano-antennas for superconducting Infrared detectors |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2011 |
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IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond. |
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Volume |
21 |
Issue |
3 |
Pages |
632-635 |
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optical antennas, NbN/MgO/NbN/TiN/Al HEB, dipole antennas, IR, infrared |
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Abstract |
To improve the response performance of superconducting infrared detectors, we have developed a fabrication process for nano-antennas. A nano-antenna consists of a dipole antenna, and a superconducting thin film strip placed in the antenna's center. By measuring the transition temperature of the superconducting strips, we confirmed that their superconductivity maintained a good condition after the nano-antenna fabrication process. We also evaluated nano-antenna characteristics using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. The evaluated antenna length and width were respectively set at around 2400 nm and 400 nm, and the antennas were placed at intervals of several micrometers around the area of 1 mm2 . In an evaluation of spectral transmission characteristics, clear absorption caused by antenna effects was observed at around 1400 cm-1. High polarization dependencies were also observed. |
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761 |
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Author |
Il'in, K. S.; Lindgren, M.; Currie, M. A.; Semenov, D.; Gol'tsman, G. N.; Sobolewski, Roman; Cherednichenko, S. I.; Gershenzon, E. M. |
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Title |
Picosecond hot-electron energy relaxation in NbN superconducting photodetectors |
Type |
Journal Article |
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Year |
2000 |
Publication |
Appl. Phys. Lett. |
Abbreviated Journal |
Appl. Phys. Lett. |
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Volume |
76 |
Issue |
19 |
Pages |
2752-2754 |
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Keywords |
NbN HEB detectors, two-temperature model, IF bandwidth |
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We report time-resolved characterization of superconducting NbN hot-electron photodetectors using an electro-optic sampling method. Our samples were patterned into micron-size microbridges from 3.5-nm-thick NbN films deposited on sapphire substrates. The devices were illuminated with 100 fs optical pulses, and the photoresponse was measured in the ambient temperature range between 2.15 and 10.6 K (superconducting temperature transition TC). The experimental data agreed very well with the nonequilibrium hot-electron, two-temperature model. The quasiparticle thermalization time was ambient temperature independent and was measured to be 6.5 ps. The inelastic electron–phonon scattering time Ï„e–ph tended to decrease with the temperature increase, although its change remained within the experimental error, while the phonon escape time Ï„es decreased almost by a factor of two when the sample was put in direct contact with superfluid helium. Specifically, Ï„e–ph and Ï„es, fitted by the two-temperature model, were equal to 11.6 and 21 ps at 2.15 K, and 10(±2) and 38 ps at 10.5 K, respectively. The obtained value of Ï„e–ph shows that the maximum intermediate frequency bandwidth of NbN hot-electron phonon-cooled mixers operating at TC can reach 16(+4/–3) GHz if one eliminates the bolometric phonon-heating effect. |
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0003-6951 |
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856 |
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Author |
Shurakov, Alexander; Tong, Edward; Blundell, Raymond; Gol'tsman, Gregory |
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Title |
Microwave stabilization of HEB mixer by a microchip controller |
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Conference Article |
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2012 |
Publication |
IEEE MTT-S international microwave symposium digest |
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1-3 |
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HEB mixer stability, microwave injection, Allan variance, Allan time |
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The stability of a Hot Electron Bolometer (HEB) mixer can be improved by the use of microwave injection. In this article we report a refinement of this approach. We introduce a microchip controller to facilitate the implementation of the stabilization scheme, and demonstrate that the feedback loop effectively suppresses drifts in the HEB bias current, leading to an improvement in the receiver stability. The measured Allan time of the mixer's IF output power is increased to > 10 s. |
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Montreal, QC, Canada |
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857 |
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Khosropanah, P.; Merkel, H.; Yngvesson, S.; Adam, A.; Cherednichenko, S.; Kollberg, E. |
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A distributed device model for phonon-cooled HEB mixers predicting IV characteristics, gain, noise and IF bandwidth |
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Conference Article |
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2000 |
Publication |
Proc. 11th Int. Symp. Space Terahertz Technol. |
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474-488 |
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HEB mixer numerical model, diffusion cooling channel, diffusion channel, distributed HEB model, distributed model |
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A distributed model for phonon-cooled superconductor hot electron bolometer (HEB) mixers is given, which is based on solving the one-dimensional heat balance equation for the electron temperature profile along the superconductor strip. In this model it is assumed that the LO power is absorbed uniformly along the bridge but the DC power absorption depends on the local resistivity and is thus not uniform. The electron temperature dependence of the resistivity is assumed to be continuous and has a Fermi form. These assumptions are used in setting up the non-linear heat balance equation, which is solved numerically for the electron temperature profile along the bolometer strip. Based on this profile the resistance of the device and the IV curves are calculated. The IV curves are in excellent agreement with measurement results. Using a small signal model the conversion gain of the mixer is obtained. The expressions for Johnson noise and thermal fluctuation noise are derived. The calculated results are in close agreement with measurements, provided that one of the parameters used is adjusted. |
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University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI USA |
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893 |
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Author |
Kooi, Jacob Willem |
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Title |
Advanced receivers for submillimeter and far infrared astronomy |
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Book Whole |
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2008 |
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University of Groningen |
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RUG |
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HEB, SIS, TES, NEP, noise temperature, IF bandwidth, waveguide, impedance, conversion gain, FTS, integrated array, stability, Allan variance, multi-layer antireflection coating |
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Doctoral thesis |
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978-90-367-3653-4 |
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881 |
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Elant'ev, A. I.; Karasik, B. S. |
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Title |
Effect of high-frequency current on Nb superconductive film in resistive state |
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1989 |
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Sov. J. Low Temp. Phys. |
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Sov. J. Low Temp. Phys. |
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15 |
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7 |
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379-383 |
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Nb HEB |
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882 |
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Kaganov, M. L.; Lifshitz, I. M.; Tanatarov, L. V. |
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Title |
Relaxation between electrons and the crystalline lattice |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
1957 |
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Sov. Phys. JETP |
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Sov. Phys. JETP |
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4 |
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2 |
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173-178 |
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HEB, nonlinear equations, numerical model |
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894 |
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Ynvesson, K. Sigfrid; Kollberg, Erik L. |
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Optimum receiver noise temperature for NbN HEB mixers according to standard model |
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Conference Article |
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1999 |
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Proc. 10th Int. Symp. Space Terahertz Technol. |
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566-582 |
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HEB mixer model, standard model, electro-thermal feedback, self-heating parameter, heating efficiency |
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895 |
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Vercruyssen, N.; Verhagen, T. G. A.; Flokstra, M. G.; Pekola, J. P.; Klapwijk, T. M. |
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Evanescent states and nonequilibrium in driven superconducting nanowires |
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2012 |
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Phys. Rev. B |
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Phys. Rev. B |
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85 |
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224503(1-10) |
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Al HEB, Al superconducting nanowire, global state, bimodal state, quasiclassical kinetic equations, Usadel equation |
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We study the nonlinear response of current transport in a superconducting diffusive nanowire between normal reservoirs. We demonstrate theoretically and experimentally the existence of two different superconducting states appearing when the wire is driven out of equilibrium by an applied bias, called the global and bimodal superconducting states. The different states are identified by using two-probe measurements of the wire, and measurements of the local density of states with tunneling probes. The analysis is performed within the framework of the quasiclassical kinetic equations for diffusive superconductors. |
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898 |
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Semenov, A. D.; Nebosis, R. S.; Gousev, Yu. P.; Heusinger, M. A.; Renk, K. F. |
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Analysis of the nonequilibrium photoresponse of superconducting films to pulsed radiation by use of a two-temperature model |
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1995 |
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Phys. Rev. B |
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Phys. Rev. B |
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52 |
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1 |
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581-590 |
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HEB, NbN phonon scecific heat, Cp |
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Abstract |
Photoresponse of a superconducting film in the resistive state to pulsed radiation has been studied in the framework of a model assuming that two different effective temperatures can be assigned to the quasiparticle and phonon nonequilibrium distributions. The coupled electron-phonon-substrate system is described by a system of time-dependent energy-balance differential equations for effective temperatures. An analytical solution of the system is given and calculated voltage transients are compared with experimental photoresponse signals taking into account the radiation pulse shape and the time resolution of the readout electronics. It is supposed that a resistive state (vortices, fluxons, network of intergrain junctions, hot spots, phase slip centers) provides an ultrafast connection between electron temperature changes and changes of the film resistance and thus plays a minor role in the temporal evolution of the response. In accordance with experimental observations a two-component response was revealed from simulations. The slower component corresponds to a bolometric mechanism while the fast component is connected with the relaxation of the electron temperature. Calculated photoresponse transients are presented for different ratios of the electron and phonon specific heat, radiation pulse durations and fluences, and frequency band passes of registration electronics. From the amplitude of the bolometric component we determine the radiation energy absorbed in a film. This enables us to reveal an intrinsic electron-phonon scattering time even if it is much shorter than the time resolution of readout electronics. We analyze experimental voltage transients for NbN, YBa2Cu3O7, and TlBa2Ca2Cu3O9 superconducting films and find the electron-phonon interaction times at the transition temperatures of 17, 2.5, and 1.8 ps, respectively. The values are in reasonable agreement with data of other experiments. |
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903 |
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Gao, J. R.; Hovenier, J. N.; Yang, Z. Q.; Baselmans, J. J. A.; Baryshev, A.; Hajenius, M.; Klapwijk, T. M.; Adam, A. J. L.; Klaassen, T. O.; Williams, B. S.; Kumar, S.; Hu, Q.; Reno, J. L. |
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Title |
Terahertz heterodyne receiver based on a quantum cascade laser and a superconducting bolometer |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2005 |
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Appl. Phys. Lett. |
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Appl. Phys. Lett. |
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86 |
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244104 (1 to 3) |
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HEB, QCL |
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We report the first demonstration of an all solid-stateheterodyne receiver that can be used for high-resolution spectroscopy above 2THz suitable for space-based observatories. The receiver uses a NbN superconducting hot-electron bolometer as mixer and a quantum cascade laser operating at 2.8THz as local oscillator. We measure a double sideband receiver noise temperature of 1400K at 2.8THz and 4.2K, and find that the free-running QCL has sufficient power stability for a practical receiver, demonstrating an unprecedented combination of sensitivity and stability. |
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Lobanov, Yury; Shcherbatenko, Michael; Shurakov, Alexander; Rodin, Alexander V.; Klimchuk, Artem; Nadezhdinsky, Alexander I.; Maslennikov, Sergey; Larionov, Pavel; Finkel, Matvey; Semenov, Alexander; Verevkin, Aleksandr A.; Voronov, Boris M.; Ponurovsky, Yakov; Klapwijk, Teunis M.; Gol'tsman, Gregory N. |
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Heterodyne detection at near-infrared wavelengths with a superconducting NbN hot-electron bolometer mixer |
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2014 |
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Opt. Lett. |
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39 |
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6 |
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1429-1432 |
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HEB, zebra, IR, infrared |
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We report on the development of a highly sensitive optical receiver for heterodyne IR spectroscopy at the communication wavelength of 1.5 μm (200 THz) by use of a superconducting hot-electron bolometer. The results are important for the resolution of narrow spectral molecular lines in the near-IR range for the study of astronomical objects, as well as for quantum optical tomography and fiber-optic sensing. Receiver configuration as well as fiber-to-detector light coupling designs are discussed. Light absorption of the superconducting detectors was enhanced by nano-optical antennas, which were coupled to optical fibers. An intermediate frequency (IF) bandwidth of about 3 GHz was found in agreement with measurements at 300 GHz, and a noise figure of about 25 dB was obtained that was only 10 dB above the quantum limit. |
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Pütz, P.; Honingh, C. E.; Jacobs, K.; Justen, M.; Schultz, M.; Stutzki, J. |
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Terahertz hot electron bolometer waveguide mixers for GREAT |
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2012 |
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Astron. Astrophys. |
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A&A |
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542 |
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L2 |
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HEB mixer, applications |
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Context. Supplementing the publications based on the first-light observations with the German REceiver for Astronomy at Terahertz frequencies (GREAT) on SOFIA, we present background information on the underlying heterodyne detector technology. This Letter complements the GREAT instrument Letter and focuses on the mixers itself.
Aims. We describe the superconducting hot electron bolometer (HEB) detectors that are used as frequency mixers in the L1 (1400 GHz), L2 (1900 GHz), and M (2500 GHz) channels of GREAT. Measured performance of the detectors is presented and background information on their operation in GREAT is given.
Methods. Our mixer units are waveguide-based and couple to free-space radiation via a feedhorn antenna. The HEB mixers are designed, fabricated, characterized, and flight-qualified in-house. We are able to use the full intermediate frequency bandwidth of the mixers using silicon-germanium multi-octave cryogenic low-noise amplifiers with very low input return loss.
Results. Superconducting HEB mixers have proven to be practical and sensitive detectors for high-resolution THz frequency spectroscopy on SOFIA. We show that our niobium-titanium-nitride (NbTiN) material HEBs on silicon nitride (SiN) membrane substrates have an intermediate frequency (IF) noise roll-off frequency above 2.8 GHz, which does not limit the current receiver IF bandwidth. Our mixer technology development efforts culminate in the first successful operation of a waveguide-based HEB mixer at 2.5 THz and deployment for radioastronomy. A significant contribution to the success of GREAT is made by technological development, thorough characterization and performance optimization of the mixer and its IF interface for receiver operation on SOFIA. In particular, the development of an optimized mixer IF interface contributes to the low passband ripple and excellent stability, which GREAT demonstrated during its initial successful astronomical observation runs. |
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Cherednichenko, Sergey; Drakinskiy, Vladimir; Berg, Therese; Khosropanah, Pourya; Kollberg, Erik |
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Hot-electron bolometer terahertz mixers for the Herschel Space Observatory |
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2008 |
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Review of Scientific Instruments |
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Rev. Sci. Instrum. |
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79 |
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034501 |
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HEB mixer, HEB detector, HEB direct detector, applications |
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We report on low noise terahertz mixers(1.4–1.9THz) developed for the heterodyne spectrometer onboard the Herschel Space Observatory. The mixers employ double slot antenna integrated superconducting hot-electron bolometers (HEBs) made of thin NbN films. The mixer performance was characterized in terms of detection sensitivity across the entire rf band by using a Fourier transform spectrometer (from 0.5to2.5THz, with 30GHz resolution) and also by measuring the mixernoise temperature at a limited number of discrete frequencies. The lowest mixernoise temperature recorded was 750K [double sideband (DSB)] at 1.6THz and 950KDSB at 1.9THz local oscillator (LO) frequencies. Averaged across the intermediate frequency band of 2.4–4.8GHz, the mixernoise temperature was 1100KDSB at 1.6THz and 1450KDSB at 1.9THz LO frequencies. The HEB heterodyne receiver stability has been analyzed and compared to the HEB stability in the direct detection mode. The optimal local oscillator power was determined and found to be in a 200–500nW range. |
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Leisawitz, David T.; Danchi, William C.; Dipirro, Michael J.; Feinberg, Lee D.; Gezari, Daniel Y.; Hagopian, Mike; Langer, William D.; Mather, John C.; Moseley, Jr. Samuel H.; Shao, Michael; Silverberg, Robert F.; Staguhn, Johannes G.; Swain, Mark R.; Yorke, Harold W.; Zhang, Xiaolei |
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Scientific motivation and technology requirements for the SPIRIT and SPECS far-infrared/submillimeter space interferometers |
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2000 |
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Proc. SPIE |
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Proc. SPIE |
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4013 |
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36-46 |
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HEB applications |
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Far infrared interferometers in space would enable extraordinary measurements of the early universe, the formation of galaxies, stars, and planets, and would have great discovery potential. Since half the luminosity of the universe and 98% of the photons released since the Big Bang are now observable at far IR wavelengths (40 – 500 micrometers ), and the Earth's atmosphere prevents sensitive observations from the ground, this is one of the last unexplored frontiers of space astronomy. We present the engineering and technology requirements that stem from a set of compelling scientific goals and discuss possible configurations for two proposed NASA missions, the Space Infrared Interferometric Telescope and the Submillimeter Probe of the Evolution of Cosmic Structure. |
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909 |
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Khosropanah, Pourya |
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NbN and NbTiN hot electron bolometer THz mixers |
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2003 |
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Chalmers University of Technology |
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HEB mixer, hot electron bolometer mixer, NbN, NbTiN, superconducting detector, heterodyne receiver, THz mixer, submillimeter mixer, quasioptical receiver, double slot antenna, twin slot antenna, spiral antenna, receiver noise, FTS, Fourier Transform Spectrometer |
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The thesis reports the development of Hot Electron Bolometer (HEB) mixers for radio astronomy heterodyne receivers in THz frequency range. Part of this work is the fabrication of HEB devices, which are based on NbN or NbTiN superconducting thin films (â‰<a4>5 nm). They are integrated with wideband spiral or double-slot planar antennas. The mixer chips are incorporated into a quasi-optical receiver. The experimental part of this work focuses on the characterization of the receiver as a whole, and the HEB mixers as a part. Double side band receiver noise temperature and the IF bandwidth are reported for frequencies from 0.7 THz up to 2.6 THz. The spectrum of the direct response of HEB integrated with dierent antennas are measured using Fourier Transform Spectrometer (FTS). The effect of the bolometer size on total receiver performance and the LO power requirements is also discussed. A high-yield and reliable process for fabrication of NbN HEB mixers have been achieved. Over 100 devices with different bolometer geometry, film property and also different antennas have been fabricated and measured. The measured data enables us to discuss the impact of different parameters to the receiver overall performance.
This work has provided NbN HEB mixers to the following receivers:
TREND (Terahertz REceiver with NbN HEB Device) operating at 1.25-1.5 THz, installed in AST/RO Submillimeter Wave Telescope, Amundsen/Scott South Pole Station, in 2002-2003.
Band 6-low (1.410-1.700 THz) and 6-high (1.700-1.920 THz) of the HIFI (Heterodyne Instrument for Far Infra-red) in the Herschel Space Observatory, due to launch in 2007 by ESA (European Space Agency).
Besides, there has been continuous efforts to develop better models to explain the mixer performance more accurately. They are based on two temperature model for electrons and phonons and solving one-dimensional heat balance equations along the bolometer. The principles of these models are illustrated and the calculated results are compared with measured data. |
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Ph.D. thesis |
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Chalmers University of Technology |
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Göteborg |
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910 |
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Yagoubov, P.; Kroug, M.; Merkel, H.; Kollberg, E.; Gol'tsman, G.; Svechnikov, S.; Gershenzon, E. |
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Noise temperature and local oscillator power requirement of NbN phonon-cooled hot electron bolometric mixers at terahertz frequencies |
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1998 |
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Appl. Phys. Lett. |
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Appl. Phys. Lett. |
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73 |
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19 |
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2814-2816 |
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NbN HEB mixers, noise temperature, local oscillator power |
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In this letter, the noise performance of NbN-based phonon-cooled hot electron bolometric quasioptical mixers is investigated in the 0.55–1.1 THz frequency range. The best results of the double-sideband <cd><2018>DSB<cd><2019> noise temperature are: 500 K at 640 GHz, 600 K at 750 GHz, 850 K at 910 GHz, and 1250 K at 1.1 THz. The water vapor in the signal path causes significant contribution to the measured receiver noise temperature around 1.1 THz. The devices are made from 3-nm-thick NbN film on high-resistivity Si and integrated with a planar spiral antenna on the same substrate. The in-plane dimensions of the bolometer strip are typically 0.2Ï«2 um. The amount of local oscillator power absorbed in the bolometer is less than 100 nW. |
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911 |
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Gurevich, A. Vl.; Mints, R. G. |
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Self-heating in normal metals and superconductors |
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1987 |
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Rev. Mod. Phys. |
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59 |
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4 |
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941-1000 |
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HEB, Joule self-heating effect |
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This review is devoted to the physics of current-carrying superconductors and normal metals having two or more stable states sustained by Joule self-heating. The creation, propagation, and localization of electrothermal domains and switching waves leading to the transition from one stable state to another in uniform and nonuniform samples are treated in detail. The connection between thermal bistability and hysteresis, dropping and stepped current-voltage characteristics, self-induced oscillations of current and voltage, selfreplication of electrothermal domains, and the formation of periodic and stochastic resistive structures are considered. |
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917 |
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Miao, W.; Zhang, W.; Zhong, J. Q.; Shi, S. C.; Delorme, Y.; Lefevre, R.; Feret, A; Vacelet, T |
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Non-uniform absorption of terahertz radiation on superconducting hot electron bolometer microbridges |
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2014 |
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Appl. Phys. Lett. |
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<ef><bf><bc>Appl. Phys. Lett. |
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104 |
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052605(1-4) |
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NbN HEB mixers, local oscillator power, RF nonuniform absorption |
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We interpret the experimental observation of a frequency-dependence of superconducting hot electron bolometer (HEB) mixers by taking into account the non-uniform absorption of the terahertz radiation on the superconducting HEB microbridge. The radiation absorption is assumed to be proportional to the local surface resistance of the HEB microbridge, which is computed using the Mattis-Bardeen theory. With this assumption the dc and mixing characteristics of a superconducting niobium-nitride (NbN) HEB device have been modeled at frequencies below and above the equilibrium gap frequency of the NbN film. |
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935 |
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Bardeen, J; Mattis, D. C. |
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Theory of the anomalous skin effect in normal and superconducting metals |
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1958 |
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Phys. Rev. |
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Phys. Rev. |
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111 |
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2 |
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412-417 |
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local dirty limit, complex conductivity, HEB |
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Chambers' expression for the current density in a normal metal in which the electric field varies over a mean free path is derived from a quantum approach in which use is made of the density matrix in the presence of scattering centers but in the absence of the field. An approximate expression used for the latter is shown to reduce to one derived by Kohn and Luttinger for the case of weak scattering. A general space-and time-varying electromagnetic interaction is treated by first-order perturbation theory. The method is applied to superconductors, and a general expression derived for the kernel of the Pippard integral for fields of arbitrary frequency. The expressions derived can also be used to discuss absorption of electromagnetic radiation in thin superconducting films. |
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Kawamura, J.; Blundell, R.; Tong, C.-Y. E.; Golts'man, G.; Gershenzon, E.; Voronov B. |
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Superconductive NbN hot-electron bolometric mixer performance at 250 GHz |
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1996 |
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Proc. 7th Int. Symp. Space Terahertz Technol. |
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Proc. 7th Int. Symp. Space Terahertz Technol. |
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331-336 |
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NbN HEB mixers |
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Thin film NbN (<40 A) strips are used as waveguide mixer elements. The electron cooling mechanism for the geometry is the electron-phonon interaction. We report a receiver noise temperature of 750 K at 244 GHz, with / IF = 1.5 GHz, Af= 500 MHz, and Tphysical = 4 K. The instantaneous bandwidth for this mixer is 1.6 GHz. The local oscillator (LO) power is 0.5 1.tW with 3 dB-uncertainty. The mixer is linear to 1 dB up to an input power level 6 dB below the LO power. We report the first detection of a molecular line emission using this class of mixer, and that the receiver noise temperature determined from Y-factor measurements reflects the true heterodyne sensitivity. |
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Shurakov, A.; Tong, Cheuk-yu E.; Grimes, P.; Blundell, R.; Golt'sman, G. |
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A microwave reflection readout scheme for hot electron bolometric direct detector |
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2015 |
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IEEE Trans. THz Sci. Technol. |
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IEEE Trans. THz Sci. Technol. |
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5 |
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81-84 |
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HEB detectors |
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In this paper, we propose and present data from a fast THz detector based on the repurpose of hot electron bolometer mixers (HEB) fabricated from superconducting NbN thinfilm. This detector is essentially a traditional NbN bolometer element that operates under the influence of a microwave pump. The in-jected microwave power serves the dual purpose of enhancing the detector sensitivity and reading out the impedance changes of the device in response to incidentTHz radiation. We have measured an optical Noise Equivalent Power of 4 pW/ Hz for our detector at a bath temperature of 4.2 K. The measurement frequency was 0.83 THz and the modulation frequency was 1.48 kHz. The readout
scheme is versatile and facilitates both high-speed operation as well as multi-pixel applications. |
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RPLAB @ atomics90 @ |
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950 |
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Author |
Trifonov, A.; Tong, C.-Y. E.; Blundell, R.; Ryabchun, S.; Gol'tsman, G. |
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Title |
Probing the stability of HEB mixers with microwave injection |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2015 |
Publication |
IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond. |
Abbreviated Journal |
IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond. |
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Volume |
25 |
Issue |
3 |
Pages |
2300404 (1 to 4) |
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NbN HEB mixer, stability, Allan-variance |
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Using a microwave probe as a tool, we have performed experiments aimed at understanding the origin of the output-power fluctuations in hot-electron-bolometer (HEB) mixers. We use a probe frequency of 1.5 GHz. The microwave probe picks up impedance changes of the HEB, which are examined upon demodulation of the reflected wave outside the cryostat. This study shows that the HEB mixer operates in two different regimes under a terahertz pump. At a low pumping level, strong pulse modulation is observed, as the device switches between the superconducting state and the normal state at a rate of a few megahertz. When pumped much harder, to approximate the low-noise mixer operating point, residual modulation can still be observed, showing that the HEB mixer is intrinsically unstable even in the resistive state. Based on these observations, we introduced a low-frequency termination to the HEB mixer. By terminating the device in a 50-Ω resistor in the megahertz frequency range, we have been able to improve the output-power Allan time of our HEB receiver by a factor of four to about 10 s for a detection bandwidth of 15 MHz, with a corresponding gain fluctuation of about 0.035%. |
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1051-8223 |
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1355 |
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Lobanov, Y.; Shcherbatenko, M.; Finkel, M.; Maslennikov, S.; Semenov, A.; Voronov, B. M.; Rodin, A. V.; Klapwijk, T. M.; Gol'tsman, G. N. |
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Title |
NbN hot-electron-bolometer mixer for operation in the near-IR frequency range |
Type |
Journal Article |
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Year |
2015 |
Publication |
IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond. |
Abbreviated Journal |
IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond. |
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Volume |
25 |
Issue |
3 |
Pages |
2300704 (1 to 4) |
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Keywords |
HEB mixer, IR, optical antenna |
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Abstract |
Traditionally, hot-electron-bolometer (HEB) mixers are employed for THz and “super-THz” heterodyne detection. To explore the near-IR spectral range, we propose a fiber-coupled NbN film based HEB mixer. To enhance the incident-light absorption, a quasi-antenna consisting of a set of parallel stripes of gold is used. To study the antenna effect on the mixer performance, we have experimentally studied a set of devices with different size of the Au stripe and spacing between the neighboring stripes. With use of the well-known isotherm technique we have estimated the absorption efficiency of the mixer, and the maximum efficiency has been observed for devices with the smallest pitch of the alternating NbN and NbN-Au stripes. Also, a proper alignment of the incident Eâƒ<2014>-field with respect to the stripes allows us to improve the coupling further. Studying IV-characteristics of the mixer under differently-aligned Eâƒ<2014>-field of the incident radiation, we have noticed a difference in their shape. This observation suggests that a difference exists in the way the two waves with orthogonal polarizations parallel and perpendicular Eâƒ<2014>-field to the stripes heat the electrons in the HEB mixer. The latter results in a variation in the electron temperature distribution over the HEB device irradiated by the two waves. |
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952 |
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Seliverstov, S.; Maslennikov, S.; Ryabchun, S.; Finkel, M.; Klapwijk, T. M.; Kaurova, N.; Vachtomin, Yu.; Smirnov, K.; Voronov, B.; Goltsman, G. |
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Title |
Fast and sensitive terahertz direct detector based on superconducting antenna-coupled hot electron bolometer |
Type |
Journal Article |
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Year |
2015 |
Publication |
IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond. |
Abbreviated Journal |
IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond. |
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Volume |
25 |
Issue |
3 |
Pages |
2300304 |
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Keywords |
HEB detector responsivity, HEB model, numerical calculations, numerical model |
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We characterize superconducting antenna-coupled hot-electron bolometers for direct detection of terahertz radiation operating at a temperature of 9.0 K. The estimated value of responsivity obtained from lumped-element theory is strongly different from the measured one. A numerical calculation of the detector responsivity is developed, using the Euler method, applied to the system of heat balance equations written in recurrent form. This distributed element model takes into account the effect of nonuniform heating of the detector along its length and provides results that are in better agreement with the experiment. At a signal frequency of 2.5 THz, the measured value of the optical detector noise equivalent power is 2.0 × 10-13 W · Hz-0.5. The value of the bolometer time constant is 35 ps. The corresponding energy resolution is about 3 aJ. This detector has a sensitivity similar to that of the state-of-the-art sub-millimeter detectors operating at accessible cryogenic temperatures, but with a response time several orders of magnitude shorter. |
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953 |
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Author |
Maslennikov, S. |
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Title |
RF heating efficiency of the terahertz superconducting hot-electron bolometer |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2014 |
Publication |
arXiv |
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arXiv |
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Volume |
1404.5276 |
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Pages |
1-4 |
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Keywords |
superconducting hot-electron bolometer mixer, HEB, NbN, distributed model, HEB model, HEB mixer model, heat balance equa-tions, conversion gain, RF heating efficiency, noise temperature, simulation, Euler method |
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Abstract |
We report results of the numerical solution by the Euler method of the system of heat balance equations written in recurrent form for the superconducting hot-electron bolometer (HEB) embedded in an electrical circuit. By taking into account the dependence of the HEB resistance on the transport current we have been able to calculate rigorously the RF heating efficiency, absorbed local oscillator (LO) power and conversion gain of the HEB mixer. We show that the calculated conversion gai nis in excellent agreement with the experimental results, and that the substitution of the calculated RF heating efficiency and absorbed LO power into the expressions for the conversion gain and noise temperature given by the analytical small-signal model of the HEB yields excellent agreement with the corresponding measured values |
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Call Number |
RPLAB @ atomics90 @ |
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954 |
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Author |
Gershenzon, E. M.; Gol’tsman, G. N.; Gousev, Y. P.; Elant’ev, A. I.; Semenov, A. D. |
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Title |
Electromagnetic radiation mixer based on electron heating in resistive state of superconductive Nb and YBaCuO films |
Type |
Journal Article |
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Year |
1991 |
Publication |
IEEE Trans. Magn. |
Abbreviated Journal |
IEEE Trans. Magn. |
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Volume |
27 |
Issue |
2 |
Pages |
1317-1320 |
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YBCO, HTS, Nb HEB mixers |
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A theory of an electron-heating mixer which makes it possible to calculate all the characteristics of the device is developed. It is shown that positive conversion gain is possible for such a mixer in the millimeter to near-infrared wavelength range. The dynamic range and the optimum heterodyne power can be selected from a very wide interval by varying the mixing element volume. Measurements made for Nb within the frequency range of 120-750 GHz confirm the theory. The conversion loss obtained at T=1.6 K and normalized to the element reaches 0.3 dB in the intermediate frequency band of 40 MHz; the possible noise temperature is 50 K. The estimation of noise temperature and output band for YBaCuO at T=77 yields 200 K and more than 10 GHz, respectively. |
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1941-0069 |
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1681 |
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Hajenius, M.; Barends, R.; Gao, J. R.; Klapwijk, T. M.; Baselmans, J. J. A.; Baryshev, A.; Voronov, B.; Gol'tsman, G. |
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Title |
Local resistivity and the current-voltage characteristics of hot electron bolometer mixers |
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Journal Article |
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2005 |
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IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond. |
Abbreviated Journal |
IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond. |
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Volume |
15 |
Issue |
2 |
Pages |
495-498 |
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Keywords |
HEB mixer distributed model, HEB distributed model, distributed HEB model |
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Hot-electron bolometer devices, used successfully in low noise heterodyne mixing at frequencies up to 2.5 THz, have been analyzed. A distributed temperature numerical model of the NbN bridge, based on a local electron and a phonon temperature, is used to model pumped IV curves and understand the physical conditions during the mixing process. We argue that the mixing is predominantly due to the strongly temperature dependent local resistivity of the NbN. Experimentally we identify the origins of different transition temperatures in a real HEB device, suggesting the importance of the intrinsic resistive transition of the superconducting bridge in the modeling. |
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1051-8223 |
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980 |
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Gershenzon, E. M.; Gershenzon, M. E.; Gol'tsman, G. N.; Semenov, A. D.; Sergeev, A. V. |
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Heating of electrons in a superconductor in the resistive state by electromagnetic radiation |
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Journal Article |
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1984 |
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Sov. Phys. JETP |
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Sov. Phys. JETP |
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59 |
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2 |
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442-450 |
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Nb HEB |
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The effect of heating of electrons relative to phonons is observed and investigated in a superconducting film that is made resistive by current and by an external magnetic field. The effect is manifested by an increase of the film resistance under the influence of the electromagnetic radiation, and is not selective in the frequency band 10^10-10^15 Hz. The independence of the effect of frequency under conditions of strong scattering by static defects is attributed to the decisive role of electron-electron collisions in the distribution function. The experimentally obtained characteristic time of resistance variation near the superconducting transition corresponds to the relaxation time of the order parameter, while at lower temperatures and fields it corresponds to the time of the inelastic electron-phonon interaction. |
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RPLAB @ phisix @ |
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983 |
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Gershenzon, E. M.; Gershenzon, M. E.; Gol'tsman, G. N.; Semyonov, A. D.; Sergeev, A. V. |
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Heating of electrons in superconductor in the resistive state due to electromagnetic radiation |
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Journal Article |
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1984 |
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Solid State Communications |
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Solid State Communications |
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50 |
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3 |
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207-212 |
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Nb HEB |
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The effect of heating electrons with respect to phonons in a thin superconducting film driven into the resistive state by the current and the external magnetic field has been observed and investigated. This effect caused by the electromagnetic radiation is manifested in the increased resistance of the film and is not selective over the frequency range from 1010 to 1015 Hz. That the effect is frequency independent under the conditions of strong electron scattering caused by static defects is explained by the decisive role of electron -electron collisions in forming the distribution function. The characteristic time of resistance change, obtained experimentally, corresponds to the relaxation time of the order parameter near the superconducting transition and to the relaxation time of the nonelastic electron-phonon interaction at lower temperatures and in lower magnetic fields. |
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0038-1098 |
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Call Number |
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Serial |
1709 |
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Zhang, W.; Miao, W.; Zhong, J. Q.; Shi, S. C.; Hayton, D. J.; Vercruyssen, N.; Gao, J. R.; Goltsman, G. N. |
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Temperature dependence of the receiver noise temperature and IF bandwidth of superconducting hot electron bolometer mixers |
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Journal Article |
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2014 |
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Supercond. Sci. Technol. |
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Supercond. Sci. Technol. |
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27 |
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8 |
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085013 (1 to 5) |
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NbN HEB mixers |
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In this paper we study the temperature dependence of the receiver noise temperature and IF noise bandwidth of superconducting hot electron bolometer (HEB) mixers. Three superconducting NbN HEB devices of different transition temperatures (Tc) are measured at 0.85 THz and 1.4 THz at different bath temperatures (Tbath) between 4 K and 9 K. Measurement results demonstrate that the receiver noise temperature of superconducting NbN HEB devices is nearly constant for Tbath/Tc, less than 0.8, which is consistent with the simulation based on a distributed hot-spot model. In addition, the IF noise bandwidth appears independent of Tbath/Tc, indicating the dominance of phonon cooling in the investigated HEB devices. |
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0953-2048 |
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1358 |
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Zhang, W.; Miao, W.; Yao, Q. J.; Lin, Z. H.; Shi, S. C.; Gao, J. R.; Goltsman, G. N. |
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Spectral response and noise temperature of a 2.5 THz spiral antenna coupled NbN HEB mixer |
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Journal Article |
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2012 |
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Phys. Procedia |
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Phys. Procedia |
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36 |
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334-337 |
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NbN HEB mixer |
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We report on a 2.5 THz spiral antenna coupled NbN hot electron bolometer (HEB) mixers, fabricated with in-situ process. The receiver noise temperature with lowest value of 1180 K is in good agreement with calculated quantum efficiency factor as a function of bias voltage. In addition, the measured spectral response of the spiral antenna coupled NbN HEB mixer shows broad frequency coverage of 0.8-3 THz, and corrected response for optical losses, FTS, and coupling efficiency between antenna and bolometer falls with frequency due to diffraction-limited beam of lens/antenna combination. |
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1875-3892 |
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1381 |
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Pentin, I. V.; Smirnov, A. V.; Ryabchun, S. A.; Ozhegov, R. V.; Gol’tsman, G. N.; Vaks, V. L.; Pripolzin, S. I.; Pavel’ev, D. G.; Koshurinov, Y. I.; Ivanov, A. S. |
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Semiconducting superlattice as a solid-state terahertz local oscillator for NbN hot-electron bolometer mixers |
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Journal Article |
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2012 |
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Tech. Phys. |
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Tech. Phys. |
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57 |
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7 |
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971-974 |
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semiconducting superlattice frequency multiplier, NbN HEB mixers |
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We present the results of our studies of the semiconducting superlattice (SSL) frequency multiplier and its application as part of the solid state local oscillator (LO) in the terahertz heterodyne receiver based on a NbN hot-electron bolometer (HEB) mixer. We show that the SSL output power level increases as the ambient temperature is lowered to 4.2 K, the standard HEB operation temperature. |
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1063-7842 |
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1378 |
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Ozhegov, R. V.; Gorshkov, K. N.; Okunev, O. V.; Gol’tsman, G. N. |
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Superconducting hot-electron bolometer mixer as element of thermal imager matrix |
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Journal Article |
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2010 |
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Tech. Phys. Lett. |
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Tech. Phys. Lett. |
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36 |
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11 |
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1006-1008 |
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HEB mixers |
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The possibility of using a matrix of sensitive elements on a 12-mm-diameter hyperhemispherical lens in a thermal imager operating in the terahertz range has been studied. Dimensions of a lens region acceptable for arrangement of the matrix, in which the receiver noise temperature varies within 16% of the mean value, are determined to be 3.3% of the lens diameter. Deviations of the main lobe of the directivity pattern are evaluated, which amount to ±1.25° relative to the direction toward the optimum position of a mixer. The fluctuation sensitivity of the receiver measured in experiment is 0.5 K at a frequency of 300 GHz. |
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1063-7850 |
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1390 |
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Palma, F.; Teppe, F.; Fatimy, A. E.; Green, R.; Xu, J.; Vachontin, Y.; Tredicucci, A.; Goltsman, G.; Knap, W. |
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THz communication system based on a THz quantum cascade laser and a hot electron bolometer |
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Conference Article |
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2010 |
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35th Int. Conf. Infrared, Millimeter, and Terahertz Waves |
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35th Int. Conf. Infrared, Millimeter, and Terahertz Waves |
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11623798 (1 to 2) |
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QCL, HEB detector |
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We present the experimental study of the direct emission – detection system based on the THz Quantum Cascade Laser as a source and Hot Electron Bolometer (HEB) detector – in view of its application as an optical communication system. We show that the system can efficiently transmit the QCL Terahertz pulses. We estimate the maximal modulation speed of the system to be about several GHz and show that it is limited only by the QCL pulse power supply, detector amplifier and connection line/wires parameters. |
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Titova, N; Kardakova, A.; Tovpeko, N; Ryabchun, S.; Mandal, S.; Morozov, D.; Klemencic, G. M.; Giblin, S.R.; Williams, O. A.; Goltsman, G. N. |
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Superconducting diamond films as perspective material for direct THz detectors |
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2017 |
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Proc. 28th Int. Symp. Space Terahertz Technol. |
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Proc. 28th Int. Symp. Space Terahertz Technol. |
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82 |
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KID, HEB, superconducting diamond films, boron-doped diamond films, Al, TiN, Si substrates, NEP |
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Superconducting films with a high resistivity in the normal state have established themselves as the best materials for direct THz radiation sensors, such as kinetic inductance detectors (KIDs) [1] and hot electron bolometers (nano-HEBs) [2]. The primary characteristics of the future instrument such as the sensitivity and the response time are determined by the material parameters such as the electron-phonon (e-ph) interaction time, the electron density and the resistivity of the material. For direct detectors, such as KIDs and nano-HEBs, to provide a high sensitivity and low noise one prefer materials with long e-ph relaxation times and low values of the electron density. As a potential material for THz radiation detection we have studied superconducting diamond films. A significant interest to diamond for the development of electronic devices is due to the evolution of its properties with the boron dopant concentration. At a high boron doping concentration, n B ~5·10 20 cm -3 , diamond has been reported to become a superconducting with T c depending on the doping level. Our previous study of energy relaxation in single-crystalline boron-doped diamond films epitaxially grown on a diamond shows a remarkably slow energy-relaxation at low temperatures. The electron-phonon cooling time varies from 400 ns to 700 ns over the temperature range 2.2 K to 1.7 K [3]. In superconducting materials such as Al and TiN, traditionally used in KIDs, the e-ph cooling times at 1.7 K correspond to ~20 ns [4] and ~100 ns [5], correspondingly. Such a noticeable slow e-ph relaxation in boron-doped diamond, in combination with a low value of carrier density (~10 21 cm -3 ) in comparison with typical metals (~10 23 cm -3 ) and a high normal state resistivity (~1500 μΩ·cm) confirms a potential of superconducting diamond for superconducting bolometers and resonator detectors. However, the price and the small substrate growth are of single crystal diamond limit practical applications of homoepitaxial diamond films. As an alternative way with more convenient technology, one can employ heteroepitaxial diamond films grown on large-size Si substrates. Here we report about measurements of e-ph cooling times in superconducting diamond grown on silicon substrate and discuss our expectations about the applicability of boron-doped diamond films to superconducting detectors. Our estimation of limit value of noise-equivalent power (NEP) and the energy resolution of bolometer made from superconducting diamond is order 10 -17 W/Hz 1/2 at 2 K and the energy resolution is of 0.1 eV that corresponds to counting single-photon up to 15 um. The estimation was obtained by using the film thickness of 70 nm and ρ ~ 1500 μΩ·cm, and the planar dimensions that are chosen to couple bolometer with 75 Ω log-spiral antenna. Although the value of NEP is far yet from what might like to have for certain astronomical applications, we believe that it can be improved by a suitable fabrication process. Also the direct detectors, based on superconducting diamond, will offer low noise performance at about 2 K, a temperature provided by inexpensive close-cycle refrigerators, which provides another practical advantage of development and application of these devices. [1] P.K. Day, et. al, Nature, 425, 817, 2003. [2] J. Wei, et al, Nature Nanotech., 3, 496, 2008. [3] A. Kardakova, et al, Phys. Rev. B, 93, 064506, 2016. [4] P. Santhanam and D. Prober, Phys. Rev. B, 29, 3733, 1984 [5] A. Kardakova, et al, Appl. Phys. Lett, vol. 103, p. 252602, 2013. |
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1173 |
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Ozhegov, R. V.; Smirnov, A. V.; Vakhtomin, Yu. B.; Smirnov, K. V.; Divochiy, A. V.; Goltsman, G. N. |
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Ultrafast superconducting bolometer receivers for terahertz applications |
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2009 |
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Proc. PIERS |
Abbreviated Journal |
Proc. PIERS |
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867 |
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HEB |
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The research by the group of Moscow State Pedagogical University into the hot-electron phenomena in thin superconducting films has led to the development of new types of detectors and their use both in fundamental and applied studies. In this paper, we present the results of testing the terahertz HEB receiver systems based on ultrathin (∼ 4 nm) NbN and MoRe detectors with a response time of 50 ps and 1 ns, respectively. We have developed three types of devices which differ in the way a terahertz signal is coupled to the detector and cover the following ranges: 0.3–3 THz, 0.1–30 THz and 25–70 THz. In the case of the receiving system optimized for 0.3–3 THz, the sensitive element (a strip of asuperconductor with planar dimensions of 0.2μm (length) by 1.7μm (width)) was integrated witha planar broadband log-spiral antenna. For additional focusing ofthe incident radiation a silicon hyperhemispherical lens was used. For the 0.1–30 THz receivingsystem, the sensitive element was patterned as parallel strips(2μm wide each) filling an area of 500×500μm2with a filling factor of 0.5. In the receivingsystem of this type we used direct coupling of the incident radiation to the sensitive element. Inthe 25–70 THz range (detector type 2/2a in Table 1) we used a square-shaped superconductingdetector with planar dimensions of 10×10μm2. Incident radiation was coupled to the detectorwith the use of a germanium hyperhemispherical lens.The response time of the above receiving systems is determined by the cooling rate of the hotelectrons in the film. That depends on the electron-phonon interaction time, which is less forultrathin NbN than in MoRe. |
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Moscow, Russia |
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The Electromagnetics Academy |
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777 Concord Avenue, Suite 207 Cambridge, MA 02138 |
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1559-9450 |
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978-1-934142-09-7 |
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RPLAB @ sasha @ ozhegovultrafast |
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1022 |
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Smirnov, K. V.; Vakhtomin, Yu. B.; Divochiy, A. V.; Ozhegov, R. V.; Pentin, I. V.; Gol'tsman, G. N. |
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Infrared and terahertz detectors on basis of superconducting nanostructures |
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2010 |
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Microwave and Telecom. Technol. (CriMiCo), 20th Int. Crimean Conf. |
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823-824 |
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SSPD, SNSPD, HEB |
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Results of development of single-photon receiving systems of visible, infrared and terahertz range based on thin-film superconducting nanostructures are presented. The receiving systems are produced on the basis of superconducting nanostructures, which function by means of hot-electron phenomena. |
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IEEE |
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RPLAB @ sasha @ smirnov2010infrared |
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1025 |
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Goltsman, G. N.; Korneev, A. A.; Finkel, M. I.; Divochiy, A. V.; Florya, I. N.; Korneeva, Y. P.; Tarkhov, M. A.; Ryabchun, S. A.; Tretyakov, I. V.; Maslennikov, S. N.; Kaurova, N. S.; Chulkova, G. M.; Voronov, B. M. |
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Superconducting hot-electron bolometer as THz mixer, direct detector and IR single-photon counter |
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2010 |
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35th Int. Conf. Infrared, Millimeter, and Terahertz Waves |
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1-1 |
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SSPD, SNSPD, HEB |
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We present a new generation of superconducting single-photon detectors (SSPDs) and hot-electron superconducting sensors with record characteristic for many terahertz and optical applications. |
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2162-2027 |
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RPLAB @ sasha @ goltsman2010superconducting |
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1028 |
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Skalare, A.; McGrath, William R.; Echternach, P. M.; Leduc, H. G.; Siddiqi, I.; Verevkin, A.; Prober, D. E. |
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Aluminum hot-electron bolometer mixers at submillimeter wavelengths |
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2001 |
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IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond. |
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11 |
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1 |
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641-644 |
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Al HEB mixer, contacts, interface, in situ, in-situ, Aluminium HEB mixer |
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Diffusion-cooled aluminum hot-electron bolometer (HEB) mixers are of interest for low-noise high resolution THz-frequency spectroscopy within astrophysics. Al HEB mixers offer operation with an order of magnitude less local oscillator power, higher intermediate frequency bandwidth and potentially lower noise than competing devices made from other materials. We report on mixer experiments at 618 GHz with devices fabricated from films with sheet resistances in the range from about 55 Ω down to about 9 Ω per square. Intermediate frequency bandwidths of up to 3 GHz were measured (1 μm long device), with absorbed local oscillator power levels of 0.5 to 6 nW and mixer conversion up to -21.5 dB. High input coupling efficiency implies that the electrons in the device are able to thermalize before escaping from the device. It was found that the long coherence length complicates mixer operations due to the proximity of the contact pads. Also, saturation at the IF frequency may be a concern for this type of device, and warrants further studies. |
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ref919426b |
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Zhang, W.; Miao, W.; Zhong, J. Q.; Shi, S. C.; Hayton, D. J.; Vercruyssen, N.; Gao, J. R.; Goltsman, G. N. |
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Temperature dependence of superconducting hot electron bolometers |
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2013 |
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Not published results: 24th international symposium on space terahertz technology |
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HEB |
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Groningen,The Netherlands |
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1067 |
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Cherednichenko, S.; Yagoubov, P.; Il'in, K.; Gol'tsman, G.; Gershenzon, E. |
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Large bandwidth of NbN phonon-cooled hot-electron bolometer mixers |
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1997 |
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Proc. 27th Eur. Microwave Conf. |
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2 |
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972-977 |
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HEB mixer, fabrication process |
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The bandwidth of NbN phonon-cooled hot electron bolometer mixers has been systematically investigated with respect to the film thickness and film quality variation. The films, 2.5 to 10 nm thick, were fabricated on sapphire substrates using DC reactive magnetron sputtering. All devices consisted of several parallel strips, each 1 um wide and 2 um long, placed between Ti-Au contact pads. To measure the gain bandwidth we used two identical BWOs operating in the 120-140 GHz frequency range, one functioning as a local oscillator and the other as a signal source. The majority of the measurements were made at an ambient temperature of 4.2 K with optimal LO and DC bias. The maximum 3 dB bandwidth (about 4 GHz) was achieved for the devices made of films which were 2.5-3.5 nm thick, had a high critical temperature, and high critical current density. A theoretical analysis of bandwidth for these mixers based on the two-temperature model gives a good description of the experimental results if one assumes that the electron temperature is equal to the critical temperature. |
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Jerusalem, Israel |
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IEEE |
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27th Eur. Microwave Conf. |
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1075 |
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Angeluts, A. A.; Bezotosnyi, V. V.; Cheshev, E. A.; Goltsman, G. N.; Finkel, M. I.; Seliverstov, S. V.; Evdokimov, M. N.; Gorbunkov, M. V.; Kitaeva, G. Kh.; Koromyslov, A. L.; Kostryukov, P. V.; Krivonos, M. S.; Lobanov, Yu. V.; Shkurinov, A. P.; Sarkisov, S. Yu.; Tunkin, V. G. |
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Compact 1.64 THz source based on a dual-wavelength diode end-pumped Nd:YLF laser with a nearly semiconfocal cavity |
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2014 |
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Laser Phys. Lett. |
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11 |
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1 |
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015004 (1 to 4) |
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HEB applications, HEB detector applications, short THz pulses detection |
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We describe a compact dual-wavelength (1.047 and 1.053 μm) diode end-pumped Q-switched Nd:YLE laser source which has a number of applications in demand. In order to achieve its dual-wavelength operation it is suggested for the first time to use essentially nonmonotonous dependences of the threshold pump powers at these wavelengths on the cavity length in the region of the cavity semiconfocal configuration under a radius of the pump beam smaller than the radius of the zero Gaussian mode. Here we demonstrate one of the most interesting applications for this laser: difference frequency generation in a GaSe crystal at a frequency of 1.64 THz. A superconducting hot-electron bolometer is used to detect the THz power generated and to measure its pulse characteristics. |
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1076 |
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Smirnov, A. V.; Baryshev, A. M.; de Bernardis, P.; Vdovin, V. F.; Gol'tsman, G. N.; Kardashev, N. S.; Kuz'min, L. S.; Koshelets, V. P.; Vystavkin, A. N.; Lobanov, Yu. V.; Ryabchun, S. A.; Finkel, M. I.; Khokhlov, D. R. |
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The current stage of development of the receiving complex of the millimetron space observatory |
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2012 |
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Radiophys. Quant. Electron. |
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Radiophys. Quant. Electron. |
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54 |
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8 |
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557-568 |
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Millimetron space observatory, HEB applications |
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We present an overview of the state of the onboard receiving complex of the Millimetron space observatory in the development phase of its preliminary design. The basic parameters of the onboard equipment planned to create and required for astrophysical observations are considered. A review of coherent and incoherent detectors, which are central to each receiver of the observatory, is given. Their characteristics and limiting parameters feasible at the present level of technology are reported. |
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1079 |
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Benz, A. O.; Bruderer, S.; van Dishoeck, E. F.; Stäuber, P.; Wampfler, S. F.; Melchior, M.; Dedes, C.; Wyrowski, F.; Doty, S. D.; van der Tak, F.; Bächtold, W.; Csillaghy, A.; Megej, A.; Monstein, C.; Soldati, M.; Bachiller, R.; Baudry, A.; Benedettini, M.; Bergin, E.; Bjerkeli, P.; Blake, G. A.; Bontemps, S.; Braine, J.; Caselli, P.; Cernicharo, J.; Codella, C.; Daniel, F.; di Giorgio, A. M.; Dieleman, P.; Dominik, C.; Encrenaz, P.; Fich, M.; Fuente, A.; Giannini, T.; Goicoechea, J. R.; de Graauw, Th.; Helmich, F.; Herczeg, G. J.; Herpin, F.; Hogerheijde, M. R.; Jacq, T.; Jellema, W.; Johnstone, D.; Jørgensen, J. K.; Kristensen, L. E.; Larsson, B.; Lis, D.; Liseau, R.; Marseille, M.; McCoey, C.; Melnick, G.; Neufeld, D.; Nisini, B.; Olberg, M.; Ossenkopf, V.; Parise, B.; Pearson, J. C.; Plume, R.; Risacher, C.; Santiago-García, J.; Saraceno, P.; Schieder, R.; Shipman, R.; Stutzki, J.; Tafalla, M.; Tielens, A. G. G. M.; van Kempen, T. A.; Visser, R.; Yıldız, U. A. |
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Hydrides in young stellar objects: Radiation tracers in a protostar-disk-outflow system |
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2010 |
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Astron. Astrophys. |
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521 |
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L35 (1 to 5) |
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HEB mixer applications, HIFI, Herschel |
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Context. Hydrides of the most abundant heavier elements are fundamental molecules in cosmic chemistry. Some of them trace gas irradiated by UV or X-rays.
Aims. We explore the abundances of major hydrides in W3 IRS5, a prototypical region of high-mass star formation.
Methods. W3 IRS5 was observed by HIFI on the Herschel Space Observatory with deep integration (2500 s) in 8 spectral regions.
Results. The target lines including CH, NH, H3O+, and the new molecules SH+, H2O+, and OH+ are detected. The H2O+ and OH+ J = 1–0 lines are found mostly in absorption, but also appear to exhibit weak emission (P-Cyg-like). Emission requires high density, thus originates most likely near the protostar. This is corroborated by the absence of line shifts relative to the young stellar object (YSO). In addition, H2O+ and OH+ also contain strong absorption components at a velocity shifted relative to W3 IRS5, which are attributed to foreground clouds.
Conclusions. The molecular column densities derived from observations correlate well with the predictions of a model that assumes the main emission region is in outflow walls, heated and irradiated by protostellar UV radiation. |
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Bujarrabal, V.; Alcolea, J.; Soria-Ruiz, R.; Planesas, P.; Teyssier, D.; Marston, A. P.; Cernicharo, J.; Decin, L.; Dominik, C.; Justtanont, K.; de Koter, A.; Melnick, G.; Menten, K. M.; Neufeld, D. A.; Olofsson, H.; Schmidt, M.; Schöier, F. L.; Szczerba, R.; Waters, L. B. F. M.; Quintana-Lacaci, G.; Güsten, R.; Gallego, J. D.; Díez-González, M. C.; Barcia, A.; López-Fernández, I.; Wildeman, K.; Tielens, A. G. G. M.; Jacobs, K. |
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Herschel/HIFI observations of high-J CO transitions in the protoplanetary nebula CRL 618 |
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Journal Article |
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2010 |
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Astron. Astrophys. |
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521 |
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L3 (1 to 5) |
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HEB mixer applications, HIFI, Herschel |
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Aims. We aim to study the physical conditions, particularly the excitation state, of the intermediate-temperature gas components in the protoplanetary nebula CRL 618. These components are particularly important for understanding the evolution of the nebula.
Methods. We performed Herschel/HIFI observations of several CO lines in the far-infrared/sub-mm in the protoplanetary nebula CRL 618. The high spectral resolution provided by HIFI allows measurement of the line profiles. Since the dynamics and structure of the nebula is well known from mm-wave interferometric maps, it is possible to identify the contributions of the different nebular components (fast bipolar outflows, double shells, compact slow shell) to the line profiles. The observation of these relatively high-energy transitions allows an accurate study of the excitation conditions in these components, particularly in the warm ones, which cannot be properly studied from the low-energy lines.
Results. The 12CO J = 16–15, 10–9, and 6–5 lines are easily detected in this source. Both 13CO J = 10–9 and 6–5 are also detected. Wide profiles showing spectacular line wings have been found, particularly in 12CO J = 16–15. Other lines observed simultaneously with CO are also shown. Our analysis of the CO high-J transitions, when compared with the existing models, confirms the very low expansion velocity of the central, dense component, which probably indicates that the shells ejected during the last AGB phases were driven by radiation pressure under a regime of maximum transfer of momentum. No contribution of the diffuse halo found from mm-wave data is identified in our spectra, because of its low temperature. We find that the fast bipolar outflow is quite hot, much hotter than previously estimated; for instance, gas flowing at 100 km s-1 must have a temperature higher than ~200 K. Probably, this very fast outflow, with a kinematic age <100 yr, has been accelerated by a shock and has not yet cooled down. The double empty shell found from mm-wave mapping must also be relatively hot, in agreement with the previous estimate. |
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Cavalié, T.; Feuchtgruber, H.; Lellouch, E.; de Val-Borro, M.; Jarchow, C.; Moreno, R.; Hartogh, P.; Orton, G.; Greathouse, T. K.; Billebaud, F.; Dobrijevic, M.; Lara, L. M.; González, A.; Sagawa, H. |
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Spatial distribution of water in the stratosphere of Jupiter from Herschel HIFI and PACS observations |
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Journal Article |
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2013 |
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Astron. Astrophys. |
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553 |
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A21 (1 to 16) |
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HEB mixer applications, HIFI, Herschel |
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Context. In the past 15 years, several studies suggested that water in the stratosphere of Jupiter originated from the Shoemaker-Levy 9 (SL9) comet impacts in July 1994, but a direct proof was missing. Only a very sensitive instrument observing with high spectral/spatial resolution can help to solve this problem. This is the case of the Herschel Space Observatory, which is the first telescope capable of mapping water in Jupiter's stratosphere.
Aims. We observed the spatial distribution of the water emission in Jupiter's stratosphere with the Heterodyne Instrument for the Far Infrared (HIFI) and the Photodetector Array Camera and Spectrometer (PACS) onboard Herschel to constrain its origin. In parallel, we monitored Jupiter's stratospheric temperature with the NASA Infrared Telescope Facility (IRTF) to separate temperature from water variability.
Methods. We obtained a 25-point map of the 1669.9 GHz water line with HIFI in July 2010 and several maps with PACS in October 2009 and December 2010. The 2010 PACS map is a 400-point raster of the water 66.4 μm emission. Additionally, we mapped the methane ν4 band emission to constrain the stratospheric temperature in Jupiter in the same periods with the IRTF.
Results. Water is found to be restricted to pressures lower than 2 mbar. Its column density decreases by a factor of 2–3 between southern and northern latitudes, consistently between the HIFI and the PACS 66.4 μm maps. We infer that an emission maximum seen around 15 °S is caused by a warm stratospheric belt detected in the IRTF data.
Conclusions. Latitudinal temperature variability cannot explain the global north-south asymmetry in the water maps. From the latitudinal and vertical distributions of water in Jupiter's stratosphere, we rule out interplanetary dust particles as its main source. Furthermore, we demonstrate that Jupiter's stratospheric water was delivered by the SL9 comet and that more than 95% of the observed water comes from the comet according to our models. |
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1085 |
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Chavarr'ıa, L.; Herpin, F.; Jacq, T.; Braine, J.; Bontemps, S.; Baudry, A.; Marseille, M.; van der Tak, F.; Pietropaoli, B.; Wyrowski, F.; Shipman, R.; Frieswijk, W.; van Dishoeck, E. F.; Cernicharo, J.; Bachiller, R.; Benedettini, M.; Benz, A. O.; Bergin, E.; Bjerkeli, P.; Blake, G. A.; Bruderer, S.; Caselli, P.; Codella, C.; Daniel, F.; di Giorgio, A. M.; Dominik, C.; Doty, S. D.; Encrenaz, P.; Fich, M.; Fuente, A.; Giannini, T.; Goicoechea, J. R.; de Graauw, T.; Hartogh, P.; Helmich, F.; Herczeg, G. J.; Hogerheijde, M. R.; Johnstone, D.; Jørgensen, J. K.; Kristensen, L. E.; Larsson, B.; Lis, D.; Liseau, R.; McCoey, C.; Melnick, G.; Nisini, B.; Olberg, M.; Parise, B.; Pearson, J. C.; Plume, R.; Risacher, C.; Santiago-Garc'ıa, J.; Saraceno, P.; Stutzki, J.; Szczerba, R.; Tafalla, M.; Tielens, A.; van Kempen, T. A.; Visser, R.; Wampfler, S. F.; Willem, J.; Yıldız, U. A. |
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Title |
Water in massive star-forming regions: HIFI observations of W3 IRS5 |
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Journal Article |
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2010 |
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Astron. Astrophys. |
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521 |
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L37 (1 to 5) |
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HEB mixer applications, HIFI, Herschel, stars: formation, stars: massive, ISM: molecules, ISM: abundances, dust, extinction, radio lines: ISM |
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We present Herschel observations of the water molecule in the massive star-forming region W3 IRS5. The o-H217O 110-101, p-H218O 111-000, p-H2O 202-111, p-H2O 111-000, o-H2O 221-212, and o-H2O 212-101 lines, covering a frequency range from 552 up to 1669 GHz, have been detected at high spectral resolution with HIFI. The water lines in W3 IRS5 show well-defined high-velocity wings that indicate a clear contribution by outflows. Moreover, the systematically blue-shifted absorption in the H2O lines suggests expansion, presumably driven by the outflow. No infall signatures are detected. The p-H2O 111-000 and o-H2O 212-101 lines show absorption from the cold material (T ~ 10 K) in which the high-mass protostellar envelope is embedded. One-dimensional radiative transfer models are used to estimate water abundances and to further study the kinematics of the region. We show that the emission in the rare isotopologues comes directly from the inner parts of the envelope (T â‰<b3> 100 K) where water ices in the dust mantles evaporate and the gas-phase abundance increases. The resulting jump in the water abundance (with a constant inner abundance of 10-4) is needed to reproduce the o-H217O 110-101 and p-H218O 111-000 spectra in our models. We estimate water abundances of 10-8 to 10-9 in the outer parts of the envelope (T â‰<b2> 100 K). The possibility of two protostellar objects contributing to the emission is discussed. |
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Chav13HEBapplHIFIb |
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1086 |
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Crockett, N. R.; Bergin, E. A.; Wang, S.; Lis, D. C.; Bell, T. A.; Blake, G. A.; Boogert, A.; Bumble, B.; Cabrit, S.; Caux, E.; Ceccarelli, C.; Cernicharo, J.; Comito, C.; Daniel, F.; Dubernet, M.-L.; Emprechtinger, M.; Encrenaz, P.; Falgarone, E.; Gerin, M.; Giesen, T. F.; Goicoechea, J. R.; Goldsmith, P. F.; Gupta, H.; Güsten, R.; Hartogh, P.; Helmich, F.; Herbst, E.; Honingh, N.; Joblin, C.; Johnstone, D.; Karpov, A.; Kawamura, J. H.; Kooi, J.; Krieg, J.-M.; Langer, W. D.; Latter, W. D.; Lord, S. D.; Maret, S.; Martin, P. G.; Melnick, G. J.; Menten, K. M.; Morris, P.; Müller, H. S. P.; Murphy, J. A.; Neufeld, D. A.; Ossenkopf, V.; Pearson, J. C.; Pérault, M.; Phillips, T. G.; Plume, R.; Qin, S.-L.; Roelfsema, P.; Schieder, R.; Schilke, P.; Schlemmer, S.; Stutzki, J.; van der Tak, F. F. S.; Tielens, A.; Trappe, N.; Vastel, C.; Yorke, H. W.; Yu, S.; Zmuidzinas, J. |
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Herschel observations of EXtra-Ordinary Sources (HEXOS): The Terahertz spectrum of Orion KL seen at high spectral resolution |
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Journal Article |
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2010 |
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Annual Rev. Astron. Astrophys. |
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521 |
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L21 (1 to 5) |
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HEB mixer applications, HIFI, Herschel |
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We present the first high spectral resolution observations of Orion KL in the frequency ranges 1573.4–1702.8 GHz (band 6b) and 1788.4–1906.8 GHz (band 7b) obtained using the HIFI instrument on board the Herschel Space Observatory. We characterize the main emission lines found in the spectrum, which primarily arise from a range of components associated with Orion KL including the hot core, but also see widespread emission from components associated with molecular outflows traced by H2O, SO2, and OH. We find that the density of observed emission lines is significantly diminished in these bands compared to lower frequency Herschel/HIFI bands. |
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1087 |
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Hartogh, P.; Crovisier, J.; de Val-Borro, M.; Bockelée-Morvan, D.; Biver, N.; Lis, D. C.; Moreno, R.; Jarchow, C.; Rengel, M.; Emprechtinger, M.; Szutowicz, S.; Banaszkiewicz, M.; Bensch, F.; Blecka, M. I.; Cavalié, T.; Encrenaz, T.; Jehin, E.; Küppers, M.; Lara, L.-M.; Lellouch, E.; Swinyard, B. M.; Vandenbussche, B.; Bergin, E. A.; Blake, G. A.; Blommaert, J. A. D. L.; Cernicharo, J.; Decin, L.; Encrenaz, P.; de Graauw, T.; Hutsemekers, D.; Kidger, M.; Manfroid, J.; Medvedev, A. S.; Naylor, D. A.; Schieder, R.; Thomas, N.; Waelkens, C.; Roelfsema, P. R.; Dieleman, P.; Güsten, R.; Klein, T.; Kasemann, C.; Caris, M.; Olberg, M.; Benz, A. O. |
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HIFI observations of water in the atmosphere of comet C/2008 Q3 (Garradd) |
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Journal Article |
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2010 |
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Astron. Astrophys. |
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518 |
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L150 (1 to 5) |
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HEB mixer applications, HIFI, Herschel, comets: individual: C/2008 Q3 / radio lines: general / submillimeter: general / techniques: spectroscopic |
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High-resolution far-infrared and sub-millimetre spectroscopy of water lines is an important tool to understand the physical and chemical properties of cometary atmospheres. We present observations of several rotational ortho- and para-water transitions in comet C/2008 Q3 (Garradd) performed with HIFI on Herschel. These observations have provided the first detection of the 212–101 (1669 GHz) ortho and 111–000 (1113 GHz) para transitions of water in a cometary spectrum. In addition, the ground-state transition 110–101 at 557 GHz is detected and mapped. By detecting several water lines quasi-simultaneously and mapping their emission we can constrain the excitation parameters in the coma. Synthetic line profiles are computed using excitation models which include excitation by collisions, solar infrared radiation, and radiation trapping. We obtain the gas kinetic temperature, constrain the electron density profile, and estimate the coma expansion velocity by analyzing the map and line shapes. We derive water production rates of 1.7–2.8 × 1028 s-1 over the range rh = 1.83–1.85 AU. |
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1088 |
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Decin, L.; Justtanont, K.; De Beck, E.; Lombaert, R.; de Koter, A.; Waters, L. B. F. M.; Marston, A. P.; Teyssier, D.; Schöier, F. L.; Bujarrabal, V.; Alcolea, J.; Cernicharo, J.; Dominik, C.; Melnick, G.; Menten, K.; Neufeld, D. A.; Olofsson, H.; Planesas, P.; Schmidt, M.; Szczerba, R.; de Graauw, T.; Helmich, F.; Roelfsema, P.; Dieleman, P.; Morris, P.; Gallego, J. D.; Díez-González, M. C.; Caux, E. |
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Water content and wind acceleration in the envelope around the oxygen-rich AGB star IK Tauri as seen by Herschel/HIFI |
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Journal Article |
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2010 |
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Astron. Astrophys. |
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521 |
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L4 |
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HEB mixer applications, HIFI, Herschel, line: profiles / radiative transfer / instrumentation: spectrographs / stars: AGB and post-AGB / circumstellar matter / submillimeter: stars |
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During their asymptotic giant branch evolution, low-mass stars lose a significant fraction of their mass through an intense wind, enriching the interstellar medium with products of nucleosynthesis. We observed the nearby oxygen-rich asymptotic giant branch star IK Tau using the high-resolution HIFI spectrometer onboard Herschel. We report on the first detection of H216O and the rarer isotopologues H217O and H218O in both the ortho and para states. We deduce a total water content (relative to molecular hydrogen) of $6.6 \times 10^{-5}$, and an ortho-to-para ratio of 3:1. These results are consistent with the formation of H2O in thermodynamical chemical equilibrium at photospheric temperatures, and does not require pulsationally induced non-equilibrium chemistry, vaporization of icy bodies or grain surface reactions. High-excitation lines of 12CO, 13CO, 28SiO, 29SiO, 30SiO, HCN, and SO have also been detected. From the observed line widths, the acceleration region in the inner wind zone can be characterized, and we show that the wind acceleration is slower than hitherto anticipated. |
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1090 |
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Dedes, C.; Röllig, M.; Mookerjea, B.; Okada, Y.; Ossenkopf, V.; Bruderer, S.; Benz, A. O.; Melchior, M.; Kramer, C.; Gerin, M.; Güsten, R.; Akyilmaz, M.; Berne, O.; Boulanger, F.; De Lange, G.; Dubbeldam, L.; France, K.; Fuente, A.; Goicoechea, J. R.; Harris, A.; Huisman, R.; Jellema, W.; Joblin, C.; Klein, T.; Le Petit, F.; Lord, S.; Martin, P.; Martin-Pintado, J.; Neufeld, D. A.; Philipp, S.; Phillips, T.; Pilleri, P.; Rizzo, J. R.; Salez, M.; Schieder, R.; Simon, R.; Siebertz, O.; Stutzki, J.; van der Tak, F.; Teyssier, D.; Yorke, H. |
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The origin of the [C II] emission in the S140 photon-dominated regions. New insights from HIFI |
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Journal Article |
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2010 |
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Astron. Astrophys. |
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521 |
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L24 |
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HEB mixer applications, HIFI, Herschel, ISM: structure / ISM: kinematics and dynamics / ISM: molecules / photon-dominated region (PDR) / submillimeter: general |
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Using Herschel's HIFI instrument, we observe C ii along a cut through S140, as well as high-J transitions of CO and HCO+ at two positions on the cut, corresponding to the externally irradiated ionization front and the embedded massive star-forming core IRS1. The HIFI data were combined with available ground-based observations and modeled using the KOSMA-Ï„ model for photon-dominated regions (PDRs). We derive the physical conditions in S140 and in particular the origin of C ii emission around IRS1. We identify three distinct regions of C ii emission from the cut, one close to the embedded source IRS1, one associated with the ionization front, and one further into the cloud. The line emission can be understood in terms of a clumpy model of PDRs. At the position of IRS1, we identify at least two distinct components contributing to the [C ii] emission, one of them a small, hot component, which can possibly be identified with the irradiated outflow walls. This is consistent with the C ii peak at IRS1 coinciding with shocked H2 emission at the edges of the outflow cavity. We note that previously available observations of IRS1 can be reproduced well by a single-component KOSMA-Ï„ model. Thus, it is HIFI's unprecedented spatial and spectral resolution, as well as its sensitivity that has allowed us to uncover an additional hot gas component in the S140 region. |
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De Luca, M.; Gupta, H.; Neufeld, D.; Gerin, M.; Teyssier, D.; Drouin, B. J.; Pearson, J. C.; Lis, D. C.; Monje, R.; Phillips, T. G.; Goicoechea, J. R.; Godard, B.; Falgarone, E.; Coutens, A.; Bell, T. A. |
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Herschel/HIFI discovery of HCL+ in the interstellar medium |
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2012 |
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Astrophys. J. Lett. |
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751 |
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2 |
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L37 |
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The radical ion HCl+, a key intermediate in the chlorine chemistry of the interstellar gas, has been identified for the first time in the interstellar medium with the Herschel Space Observatory's Heterodyne Instrument for the Far-Infrared. The ground-state rotational transition of H35Cl+, 2Π3/2 J = 5/2-3/2, showing Λ-doubling and hyperfine structure, is detected in absorption toward the Galactic star-forming regions W31C (G10.6-0.4) and W49N. The complex interstellar absorption features are modeled by convolving in velocity space the opacity profiles of other molecular tracers toward the same sources with the fine and hyperfine structure of HCl+. This structure is derived from a combined analysis of optical data from the literature and new laboratory measurements of pure rotational transitions, reported in the accompanying Letter by Gupta et al. The models reproduce well the interstellar absorption, and the frequencies inferred from the astronomical observations are in exact agreement with those calculated using spectroscopic constants derived from the laboratory data. The detection of H37Cl+ toward W31C, with a column density consistent with the expected 35Cl/37Cl isotopic ratio, provides additional evidence for the identification. A comparison with the chemically related molecules HCl and H2Cl+ yields an abundance ratio of unity with both species (HCl+ : H2Cl+ : HCl ~ 1). These observations also yield the unexpected result that HCl+ accounts for 3%-5% of the gas-phase chlorine toward W49N and W31C, values several times larger than the maximum fraction (~1%) predicted by chemical models. |
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Hartogh, P.; Jarchow, C.; Lellouch, E.; de Val-Borro, M.; Rengel, M.; Moreno, R.; Medvedev, A. S.; Sagawa, H.; Swinyard, B. M.; Cavalié, T.; Lis, D. C.; BłÄ™cka, M. I.; Banaszkiewicz, M.; Bockelée-Morvan, D.; Crovisier, J.; Encrenaz, T.; Küppers, M.; Lara, L.-M.; Szutowicz, S.; Vandenbussche, B.; Bensch, F.; Bergin, E. A.; Billebaud, F.; Biver, N.; Blake, G. A.; Blommaert, J. A. D. L.; Cernicharo, J.; Decin, L.; Encrenaz, P.; Feuchtgruber, H.; Fulton, T.; de Graauw, T.; Jehin, E.; Kidger, M.; Lorente, R.; Naylor, D. A.; Portyankina, G.; Sánchez-Portal, M.; Schieder, R.; Sidher, S.; Thomas, N.; Verdugo, E.; Waelkens, C.; Whyborn, N.; Teyssier, D.; Helmich, F.; Roelfsema, P.; Stutzki, J.; LeDuc, H. G.; Stern, J. A. |
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Title |
Herschel/HIFI observations of Mars: First detection of O2 at submillimetre wavelengths and upper limits on HCl and H2O2 |
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Journal Article |
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2010 |
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Astron. Astrophys. |
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521 |
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L49 |
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HEB mixer applications, HIFI, Herschel, planets and satellites: atmospheres / radiative transfer / submillimeter: general / molecular processes |
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We report on an initial analysis of Herschel/HIFI observations of hydrogen chloride (HCl), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), and molecular oxygen (O2) in the Martian atmosphere performed on 13 and 16 April 2010 (Ls ~ 77°). We derived a constant volume mixing ratio of 1400 ± 120 ppm for O2 and determined upper limits of 200 ppt for HCl and 2 ppb for H2O2. Radiative transfer model calculations indicate that the vertical profile of O2 may not be constant. Photochemical models determine the lowest values of H2O2 to be around Ls ~ 75° but overestimate the volume mixing ratio compared to our measurements. |
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1093 |
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Maret, S.; Bacmann, A.; Bottinelli, S.; Parise, B.; Caux, E.; Faure, A.; Bergin, E. A.; Blake, G. A.; Castets, A.; Ceccarelli, C.; Cernicharo, J.; Coutens, A.; Crimier, N.; Demyk, K.; Dominik, C.; Gerin, M.; Hennebelle, P.; Henning, T.; Kahane, C.; Klotz, A.; Melnick, G.; Pagani, L.; Schilke, P.; Vastel, C.; Wakelam, V.; Walters, A.; Baudry, A.; Bell, T.; Benedettini, M.; Boogert, A.; Cabrit, S.; Caselli, P.; Codella, C.; Comito, C.; Encrenaz, P.; Falgarone, E.; Fuente, A.; Goldsmith, P. F.; Helmich, F.; Herbst, E.; Jacq, T.; Kama, M.; Langer, W.; Lefloch, B.; Lis, D.; Lord, S.; Lorenzani, A.; Neufeld, D.; Nisini, B.; Pacheco, S.; Phillips, T.; Salez, M.; Saraceno, P.; Schuster, K.; Tielens, X.; van der Tak, F.; van der Wiel, M. H. D.; Viti, S.; Wyrowski, F.; Yorke, H. |
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Title |
Nitrogen hydrides in the cold envelope of IRAS 16293-2422 |
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Journal Article |
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2010 |
Publication |
Astron. Astrophys. |
Abbreviated Journal |
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521 |
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L52 |
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HEB mixer applications, HIFI, Herschel, ISM: abundances / ISM: general / astrochemistry |
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Nitrogen is the fifth most abundant element in the Universe, yet the gas-phase chemistry of N-bearing species remains poorly understood. Nitrogen hydrides are key molecules of nitrogen chemistry. Their abundance ratios place strong constraints on the production pathways and reaction rates of nitrogen-bearing molecules. We observed the class 0 protostar IRAS 16293-2422 with the heterodyne instrument HIFI, covering most of the frequency range from 0.48 to 1.78 THz at high spectral resolution. The hyperfine structure of the amidogen radical o-NH2 is resolved and seen in absorption against the continuum of the protostar. Several transitions of ammonia from 1.2 to 1.8 THz are also seen in absorption. These lines trace the low-density envelope of the protostar. Column densities and abundances are estimated for each hydride. We find that NH:NH2:NH3 â‰<2c6> 5:1:300. Dark clouds chemical models predict steady-state abundances of NH2 and NH3 in reasonable agreement with the present observations, whilst that of NH is underpredicted by more than one order of magnitude, even using updated kinetic rates. Additional modelling of the nitrogen gas-phase chemistry in dark-cloud conditions is necessary before having recourse to heterogen processes. |
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1094 |
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Joblin, C.; Pilleri, P.; Montillaud, J.; Fuente, A.; Gerin, M.; Berné, O.; Ossenkopf, V.; Le Bourlot, J.; Teyssier, D.; Goicoechea, J. R.; Le Petit, F.; Röllig, M.; Akyilmaz, M.; Benz, A. O.; Boulanger, F.; Bruderer, S.; Dedes, C.; France, K.; Güsten, R.; Harris, A.; Klein, T.; Kramer, C.; Lord, S. D.; Martin, P. G.; Martin-Pintado, J.; Mookerjea, B.; Okada, Y.; Phillips, T. G.; Rizzo, J. R.; Simon, R.; Stutzki, J.; van der Tak, F.; Yorke, H. W.; Steinmetz, E.; Jarchow, C.; Hartogh, P.; Honingh, C. E.; Siebertz, O.; Caux, E.; Colin, B. |
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Title |
Gas morphology and energetics at the surface of PDRs: New insights with Herschel observations of NGC 7023 |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2010 |
Publication |
Astron. Astrophys. |
Abbreviated Journal |
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Volume |
521 |
Issue |
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Pages |
L25 |
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HEB mixer applications, HIFI, Herschel, ISM: structure / ISM: kinematics and dynamics / ISM: molecules / submillimeter: ISM |
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Context. We investigate the physics and chemistry of the gas and dust in dense photon-dominated regions (PDRs), along with their dependence on the illuminating UV field.
Aims. Using Herschel/HIFI observations, we study the gas energetics in NGC 7023 in relation to the morphology of this nebula. NGC 7023 is the prototype of a PDR illuminated by a B2V star and is one of the key targets of Herschel.
Methods. Our approach consists in determining the energetics of the region by combining the information carried by the mid-IR spectrum (extinction by classical grains, emission from very small dust particles) with that of the main gas coolant lines. In this letter, we discuss more specifically the intensity and line profile of the 158 μm (1901 GHz) [C ii] line measured by HIFI and provide information on the emitting gas.
Results. We show that both the [C ii] emission and the mid-IR emission from polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) arise from the regions located in the transition zone between atomic and molecular gas. Using the Meudon PDR code and a simple transfer model, we find good agreement between the calculated and observed [C ii] intensities.
Conclusions. HIFI observations of NGC 7023 provide the opportunity to constrain the energetics at the surface of PDRs. Future work will include analysis of the main coolant line [O i] and use of a new PDR model that includes PAH-related species. |
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1095 |
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Justtanont, K.; Decin, L.; Schöier, F. L.; Maercker, M.; Olofsson, H.; Bujarrabal, V.; Marston, A. P.; Teyssier, D.; Alcolea, J.; Cernicharo, J.; Dominik, C.; de Koter, A.; Melnick, G.; Menten, K.; Neufeld, D.; Planesas, P.; Schmidt, M.; Szczerba, R.; Waters, R.; de Graauw, Th.; Whyborn, N.; Finn, T.; Helmich, F.; Siebertz, O.; Schmülling, F.; Ossenkopf, V.; Lai, R. |
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A HIFI preview of warm molecular gas around χ Cygni: first detection of H2O emission toward an S-type AGB star |
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Journal Article |
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2010 |
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Astron. Astrophys. |
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521 |
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L6 |
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HEB mixer applications, HIFI, Herschel, stars: AGB and post-AGB / circumstellar matter / stars: kinematics and dynamics / stars: individual: χ Cyg / stars: late-type / stars: mass-loss |
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Aims. A set of new, sensitive, and spectrally resolved, sub-millimeter line observations are used to probe the warm circumstellar gas around the S-type AGB star χ Cyg. The observed lines involve high rotational quantum numbers, which, combined with previously obtained lower-frequency data, make it possible to study in detail the chemical and physical properties of, essentially, the entire circumstellar envelope of χ Cyg.
Methods. The data were obtained using the HIFI instrument aboard Herschel, whose high spectral resolution provides valuable information about the line profiles. Detailed, non-LTE, radiative transfer modelling, including dust radiative transfer coupled with a dynamical model, has been performed to derive the temperature, density, and velocity structure of the circumstellar envelope.
Results. We report the first detection of circumstellar H2O rotational emission lines in an S-star. Using the high-J CO lines to derive the parameters for the circumstellar envelope, we modelled both the ortho- and para-H2O lines. Our modelling results are consistent with the velocity structure expected for a dust-driven wind. The derived total H2O abundance (relative to H2) is (1.1±0.2) × 10-5, much lower than that in O-rich stars. The derived ortho-to-para ratio of 2.1±0.6 is close to the high-temperature equilibrium limit, consistent with H2O being formed in the photosphere. |
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1096 |
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Loenen, A. F.; van der Werf, P. P.; Güsten, R.; Meijerink, R.; Israel, F. P.; Requena-Torres, M. A.; García-Burillo, S.; Harris, A. I.; Klein, T.; Kramer, C.; Lord, S.; Martín-Pintado, J.; Röllig, M.; Stutzki, J.; Szczerba, R.; Weiß, A.; Philipp-May, S.; Yorke, H.; Caux, E.; Delforge, B.; Helmich, F.; Lorenzani, A.; Morris, P.; Philips, T. G.; Risacher, C.; Tielens, A. G. G. M. |
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Title |
Excitation of the molecular gas in the nuclear region of M 82 |
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Journal Article |
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2010 |
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Astron. Astrophys. |
Abbreviated Journal |
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521 |
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L2 |
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HEB mixer applications, HIFI, Herschel, galaxies: individual: M 82 / submillimeter: ISM / ISM: molecules / galaxies: ISM / galaxies: starburst |
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We present high-resolution HIFI spectroscopy of the nucleus of the archetypical starburst galaxy M 82. Six 12CO lines, 2 13CO lines and 4 fine-structure lines have been detected. Besides showing the effects of the overall velocity structure of the nuclear region, the line profiles also indicate the presence of multiple components with different optical depths, temperatures, and densities in the observing beam. The data have been interpreted using a grid of PDR models. It is found that the majority of the molecular gas is in low density (n = 103.5 cm-3) clouds, with column densities of NH = 1021.5 cm-2 and a relatively low UV radiation field (G0 = 102). The remaining gas is predominantly found in clouds with higher densities (n = 105 cm-3) and radiation fields (G0 = 102.75), but somewhat lower column densities (NH = 1021.2 cm-2). The highest J CO lines are dominated by a small (1% relative surface filling) component, with an even higher density (n = 106 cm-3) and UV field (G0 = 103.25). These results show the strength of multi-component modelling for interpretating the integrated properties of galaxies. |
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1097 |
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Melnick, G. J.; Tolls, V.; Neufeld, D. A.; Bergin, E. A.; Phillips, T. G.; Wang, S.; Crockett, N. R.; Bell, T. A.; Blake, G. A.; Cabrit, S.; Caux, E.; Ceccarelli, C.; Cernicharo, J.; Comito, C.; Daniel, F.; Dubernet, M.-L.; Emprechtinger, M.; Encrenaz, P.; Falgarone, E.; Gerin, M.; Giesen, T. F.; Goicoechea, J. R.; Goldsmith, P. F.; Herbst, E.; Joblin, C.; Johnstone, D.; Langer, W. D.; Latter, W. D.; Lis, D. C.; Lord, S. D.; Maret, S.; Martin, P. G.; Menten, K. M.; Morris, P.; Müller, H. S. P.; Murphy, J. A.; Ossenkopf, V.; Pagani, L.; Pearson, J. C.; Pérault, M.; Plume, R.; Qin, S.-L.; Salez, M.; Schilke, P.; Schlemmer, S.; Stutzki, J.; Trappe, N.; van der Tak, F. F. S.; Vastel, C.; Yorke, H. W.; Yu, S.; Zmuidzinas, J. |
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Herschel observations of EXtra-Ordinary Sources (HEXOS): Observations of H2O and its isotopologues towards Orion KL |
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Journal Article |
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2010 |
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Astron. Astrophys. |
Abbreviated Journal |
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521 |
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L27 |
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HEB mixer applications, HIFI, Herschel, ISM: abundances / ISM: molecules |
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We report the detection of more than 48 velocity-resolved ground rotational state transitions of H216O, H218O, and H217O – most for the first time – in both emission and absorption toward Orion KL using Herschel/HIFI. We show that a simple fit, constrained to match the known emission and absorption components along the line of sight, is in excellent agreement with the spectral profiles of all the water lines. Using the measured H218O line fluxes, which are less affected by line opacity than their H216O counterparts, and an escape probability method, the column densities of H218O associated with each emission component are derived. We infer total water abundances of 7.4 × 10-5, 1.0 × 10-5, and 1.6 × 10-5 for the plateau, hot core, and extended warm gas, respectively. In the case of the plateau, this value is consistent with previous measures of the Orion-KL water abundance as well as those of other molecular outflows. In the case of the hot core and extended warm gas, these values are somewhat higher than water abundances derived for other quiescent clouds, suggesting that these regions are likely experiencing enhanced water-ice sublimation from (and reduced freeze-out onto) grain surfaces due to the warmer dust in these sources. |
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1098 |
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