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Cherednichenko, S., Drakinskiy, V., Berg, T., Khosropanah, P., & Kollberg, E. (2008). Hot-electron bolometer terahertz mixers for the Herschel Space Observatory. Rev. Sci. Instrum., 79, 034501.
Abstract: We report on low noise terahertz mixers(1.4–1.9THz) developed for the heterodyne spectrometer onboard the Herschel Space Observatory. The mixers employ double slot antenna integrated superconducting hot-electron bolometers (HEBs) made of thin NbN films. The mixer performance was characterized in terms of detection sensitivity across the entire rf band by using a Fourier transform spectrometer (from 0.5to2.5THz, with 30GHz resolution) and also by measuring the mixernoise temperature at a limited number of discrete frequencies. The lowest mixernoise temperature recorded was 750K [double sideband (DSB)] at 1.6THz and 950KDSB at 1.9THz local oscillator (LO) frequencies. Averaged across the intermediate frequency band of 2.4–4.8GHz, the mixernoise temperature was 1100KDSB at 1.6THz and 1450KDSB at 1.9THz LO frequencies. The HEB heterodyne receiver stability has been analyzed and compared to the HEB stability in the direct detection mode. The optimal local oscillator power was determined and found to be in a 200–500nW range.
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Phillips, T. G., & Jefferts, K. B. (1973). A low temperature bolometer heterodyne receiver for Millimeter wave astronomy. Rev. Sci. Instrum., 44(8), 1009–1014.
Abstract: Liquid helium cooled InSb hot electronbolometers are used in a balanced mixer configuration as detectors for an imagelessmicrowave receiver. The system is designed for mounting at the prime focus of the National Radio Astronomy Observatory (NRAO) 11 m antenna at Kitt Peak, Arizona, and is suitable for the study of rotational line spectra of interstellar gas molecules. Currently the operating frequency is in the 90–140 GHz band where the double sideband system noise temperature is 250 K.
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Gurevich, A. V., & Mints, R. G. (1987). Self-heating in normal metals and superconductors. Rev. Mod. Phys., 59(4), 941–1000.
Abstract: This review is devoted to the physics of current-carrying superconductors and normal metals having two or more stable states sustained by Joule self-heating. The creation, propagation, and localization of electrothermal domains and switching waves leading to the transition from one stable state to another in uniform and nonuniform samples are treated in detail. The connection between thermal bistability and hysteresis, dropping and stepped current-voltage characteristics, self-induced oscillations of current and voltage, selfreplication of electrothermal domains, and the formation of periodic and stochastic resistive structures are considered.
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Finkel, M. I., Maslennikov, S. N., & Gol'tsman, G. N. (2007). The concept of the receiving complex for the “Millimetron” space radio telescope. Radiophys. Quant. Electron., 50(10-11), 837–846.
Abstract: We consider the current status of research in the development of a submillimeter and far-infrared receiving instrument and propose promising solutions for the receivers of the spaceborne telescope “Millimetron,” which allow one to realize comprehensively the opportunities given by this international project administrated by the Astrospace Center of the P. N. Lebedev Physical Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences.
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Finkel, M. I., Maslennikov, S. N., & Gol'tsman, G. N. (2005). Terahertz heterodyne receivers based on superconductive hot-electron bolometer mixers. Radiophys. Quant. Electron., 48(10-11), 859–864.
Abstract: We consider recent results in development of hot-electron bolometer mixers. Special attention is paid to optimization of the contacts between the antenna and the active area of a superconducting film. An important result in the study of the parasitic effect of direct detection is obtained during the measurement of the noise temperatures by the hot/cold load method. The latest results of studies of the waveguide hot-electron bolometer mixers and their successful practical applications are considered. Progress in development of high-frequency (over 1.3 THz) heterodyne receivers for several important international projects is discussed and new submillimeter radio astronomy projects ESPRIT and SAFIR are described.
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Gol'tsman, G. N., & Loudkov, D. N. (2003). Terahertz superconducting hot-electron bolometer mixers and their application in radio astronomy. Radiophys. Quant. Electron., 46(8/9), 604–617.
Abstract: We review the latest developments, research, and radioastronomy applications of hot-electron bolometer (HEB) mixers operated in the terahertz waveband. The physical principles of operation of terahertz HEB mixers are presented, their manufacturing from ultrathin NbN films, the main HEB-mixer parameters and their measurement techniques are discussed, and practical terahertz radioastronomy projects based on heterodyne receivers with HEB mixers are considered.
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Ryabchun, S. A., Tretyakov, I. V., Pentin, I. V., Kaurova, N. S., Seleznev, V. A., Voronov, B. M., et al. (2009). Low-noise wide-band hot-electron bolometer mixer based on an NbN film. Radiophys. Quant. Electron., 52(8), 576–582.
Abstract: We develop and study a hot-electron bolometer mixer made of a two-layer NbN–Au film in situ deposited on a silicon substrate. The double-sideband noise temperature of the mixer is 750 K at a frequency of 2.5 THz. The conversion efficiency measurements show that at the superconducting transition temperature, the intermediate-frequency bandwidth amounts to about 6.5 GHz for a mixer 0.112 μm long. These record-breaking characteristics are attributed to the improved contacts between a sensitive element and a helical antenna and are reached due to using the in situ deposition of NbN and Au layers at certain stages of the process.
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Smirnov, A. V., Baryshev, A. M., de Bernardis, P., Vdovin, V. F., Gol'tsman, G. N., Kardashev, N. S., et al. (2012). The current stage of development of the receiving complex of the millimetron space observatory. Radiophys. Quant. Electron., 54(8), 557–568.
Abstract: We present an overview of the state of the onboard receiving complex of the Millimetron space observatory in the development phase of its preliminary design. The basic parameters of the onboard equipment planned to create and required for astrophysical observations are considered. A review of coherent and incoherent detectors, which are central to each receiver of the observatory, is given. Their characteristics and limiting parameters feasible at the present level of technology are reported.
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Tretyakov, I. V., Finkel, M. I., Ryabchun, S. A., Kardakova, A. I., Seliverstov, S. V., Petrenko, D. V., et al. (2014). Hot-electron bolometer mixers with in situ contacts. Radiophys. Quant. Electron., 56(8-9), 591–598.
Abstract: We report on the latest achievements in the development of superconducting hot-electron bolometer (HEB) mixers for terahertz superheterodyne receivers. We consider application ranges of such receivers and requirements for the basic characteristics of the mixers. Main features of the mixers, such as noise temperature, gain bandwidth, noise bandwidth, and required local-oscillator power, have been improved significantly over the past few years due to intense research work, both in terms of the element fabrication quality and in terms of understanding of the physics of the processes occurring in the HEB mixers. Contacts between the superconducting bridge and the planar antenna play a key role in the mixer operation. Improvement of the quality of the contacts leads simultaneously to a decrease in the noise temperature and an increase in the gain bandwidth of a mixer.
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Tretyakov, I. V., Anfertyev, V. A., Revin, L. S., Kaurova, N. S., Voronov, B. M., Vaks, V. L., et al. (2018). Sensitivity and resolution of a heterodyne receiver based on the NbN HEB mixer with a quantum-cascade laser as a local oscillator. Radiophys. Quant. Electron., 60(12), 988–992.
Abstract: We present the results of experimental studies of the basic characteristics and operation features of a terahertz heterodyne detector based on the superconducting NbN HEB mixer and a quantum cascade laser as a local oscillator operating at a frequency of 2.02 THz. The measured noise temperature of such a mixer amounted to 1500 K. The spectral resolution of the detector is determined by the width of the local-oscillator spectral line whose measured value does not exceed 1 MHz. The quantum-cascade laser could be linearly tuned with respect to frequency with the coefficient 7.2 MHz/mA within the limits of the current oscillation bandwidth.
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