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Goltsman, G., Korneev, A., Minaeva, O., Rubtsova, I., Chulkova, G., Milostnaya, I., et al. (2005). Advanced nanostructured optical NbN single-photon detector operated at 2.0 K. In M. Razeghi, & G. J. Brown (Eds.), Proc. SPIE (Vol. 5732, pp. 520–529). Spie.
Abstract: We present our studies on quantum efficiency (QE), dark counts, and noise equivalent power (NEP) of the latest generation of nanostructured NbN superconducting single-photon detectors (SSPDs) operated at 2.0 K. Our SSPDs are based on 4 nm-thick NbN films, patterned by electron beam lithography as highly-uniform 100÷120-nm-wide meander-shaped stripes, covering the total area of 10x10 μm2 with the meander filling factor of 0.7. Advances in the fabrication process and low-temperature operation lead to QE as high as 30-40% for visible-light photons (0.56 μm wavelength)-the saturation value, limited by optical absorption of the NbN film. For 1.55 μm photons, QE was 20% and decreased exponentially with the wavelength reaching 0.02% at the 5-μm wavelength. Being operated at 2.0-K temperature the SSPDs revealed an exponential decrease of the dark count rate, what along with the high QE, resulted in the NEP as low as 5x10-21 W/Hz-1/2, the lowest value ever reported for near-infrared optical detectors. The SSPD counting rate was measured to be above 1 GHz with the pulse-to-pulse jitter below 20 ps. Our nanostructured NbN SSPDs operated at 2.0 K significantly outperform their semiconducting counterparts and find practical applications ranging from noninvasive testing of CMOS VLSI integrated circuits to ultrafast quantum communications and quantum cryptography.
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Korneev, A., Lipatov, A., Okunev, O., Chulkova, G., Smirnov, K., Gol’tsman, G., et al. (2003). GHz counting rate NbN single-photon detector for IR diagnostics of VLSI CMOS circuits. Microelectronic Engineering, 69(2-4), 274–278.
Abstract: We present a new, simple to manufacture superconducting single-photon detector operational in the range from ultraviolet to mid-infrared radiation wavelengths. The detector combines GHz counting rate, high quantum efficiency and very low level of dark (false) counts. At 1.3–1.5 μm wavelength range our detector exhibits a quantum efficiency of 5–10%. The detector photoresponse voltage pulse duration was measured to be about 150 ps with jitter of 35 ps and both of them were limited mostly by our measurement equipment. In terms of quantum efficiency, dark counts level, speed of operation the detector surpasses all semiconductor counterparts and was successfully applied for CMOS integrated circuits diagnostics.
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Sobolewski, R., Zhang, J., Slysz, W., Pearlman, A., Verevkin, A., Lipatov, A., et al. (2003). Ultrafast superconducting single-photon optical detectors. In J. Spigulis, J. Teteris, M. Ozolinsh, & A. Lusis (Eds.), Proc. SPIE (Vol. 5123, pp. 1–11). SPIE.
Abstract: We present a new class of single-photon devices for counting of both visible and infrared photons. Our superconducting single-photon detectors (SSPDs) are characterized by the intrinsic quantum efficiency (QE) reaching up to 100%, above 10 GHz counting rate, and negligible dark counts. The detection mechanism is based on the photon-induced hotspot formation and subsequent appearance of a transient resistive barrier across an ultrathin and submicron-wide superconducting stripe. The devices are fabricated from 3.5-nm-thick NbN films and operate at 4.2 K, well below the NbN superconducting transition temperature. Various continuous and pulsed laser sources in the wavelength range from 0.4 μm up to >3 μm were implemented in our experiments, enabling us to determine the detector QE in the photon-counting mode, response time, and jitter. For our best 3.5-nm-thick, 10×10 μm2-area devices, QE was found to reach almost 100% for any wavelength shorter than about 800 nm. For longer-wavelength (infrared) radiation, QE decreased exponentially with the photon wavelength increase. Time-resolved measurements of our SSPDs showed that the system-limited detector response pulse width was below 150 ps. The system jitter was measured to be 35 ps. In terms of the counting rate, jitter, and dark counts, the NbN SSPDs significantly outperform their semiconductor counterparts. Already identifeid and implemented applications of our devices range from noninvasive testing of semiconductor VLSI circuits to free-space quantum communications and quantum cryptography.
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Verevkin, A. A., Zhang, J., Slysz, W., Sobolewski, R., Lipatov, A. P., Okunev, O., et al. (2002). Superconducting single-photon detectors for GHz-rate free-space quantum communications. In J. C. Ricklin, & D. G. Voelz (Eds.), Proc. SPIE (Vol. 4821, pp. 447–454). SPIE.
Abstract: We report our studies on the performance of new NbN ultrathin-film superconducting single-photon detectors (SSPDs). Our SSPDs exhibit experimentally measured quantum efficiencies from 5% at wavelength λ = 1550 nm up to 10% at λ = 405 nm, with exponential, activation-energy-type spectral sensitivity dependence in the 0.4-μm – 3-μm wavelength range. Using a variable optical delay setup, we have shown that our NbN SSPDs can resolve optical photons with a counting rate up to 10 GHz, presently limited by the read-out electronics. The measured device jitter was below 35 ps under optimum biasing conditions. The extremely high photon counting rate, together with relatively high (especially for λ > 1 μm) quantum efficiency, low jitter, and very low dark counts, make NbN SSPDs very promising for free-space communications and quantum cryptography.
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Okunev, O., Smirnov, K., Chulkova, G., Korneev, A., Lipatov, A., Gol'tsman, G., et al. (2002). Ultrafast NBN hot-electron single-photon detectors for electronic applications. In Abstracts 8-th IUMRS-ICEM.
Abstract: We present a new, simple to manufacture, single-photon detector (SPD), which can work from ultraviolet to near-infrared wavelengths of optical radiation and combines high speed of operation, high quantum efficiency (QE), and very low dark counts. The devices are superconducting and operate at temperature below 5 K. The physics of operation of our SPD is based on formation of a photon-induced resistive hotspot and subsequent appearance of a transient resistive barrier across an ultrathin and submicron-wide superconductor.
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