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Manova, N. N., Smirnov, E. O., Korneeva, Y. P., Korneev, A. A., & Goltsman, G. N. (2019). Superconducting photon counter for nanophotonics applications. In J. Phys.: Conf. Ser. (Vol. 1410, 012147 (1 to 5)).
Abstract: We develop large area superconducting single-photon detector SSPD with a micron-wide strip suitable for free-space coupling or packaging with multi-mode optical fibres. The detector sensitive area is 20 μm in diameter. In near infrared (1330 nm wavelength) our SSPD exhibits above 30% detection efficiency with low dark counts and 45 ps timing jitter.
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Marsili, F., Bitauld, D., Fiore, A., Gaggero, A., Leoni, R., Mattioli, F., et al. (2009). Superconducting parallel nanowire detector with photon number resolving functionality. J. Modern Opt., 56(2-3), 334–344.
Abstract: We present a new photon number resolving detector (PNR), the Parallel Nanowire Detector (PND), which uses spatial multiplexing on a subwavelength scale to provide a single electrical output proportional to the photon number. The basic structure of the PND is the parallel connection of several NbN superconducting nanowires (100 nm-wide, few nm-thick), folded in a meander pattern. Electrical and optical equivalents of the device were developed in order to gain insight on its working principle. PNDs were fabricated on 3-4 nm thick NbN films grown on sapphire (substrate temperature TS=900C) or MgO (TS=400C) substrates by reactive magnetron sputtering in an Ar/N2 gas mixture. The device performance was characterized in terms of speed and sensitivity. The photoresponse shows a full width at half maximum (FWHM) as low as 660ps. PNDs showed counting performance at 80 MHz repetition rate. Building the histograms of the photoresponse peak, no multiplication noise buildup is observable and a one photon quantum efficiency can be estimated to be QE=3% (at 700 nm wavelength and 4.2 K temperature). The PND significantly outperforms existing PNR detectors in terms of simplicity, sensitivity, speed, and multiplication noise.
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Korneev, A., Finkel, M., Maslennikov, S., Korneeva, Y., Florya, I., Tarkhov, M., et al. (2010). Superconducting NbN terahertz detectors and infrared photon counters. Вестник НГУ. Серия: физ., 5(4), 68–72.
Abstract: We present our recent achievements in the development of sensitive and ultrafast thin-film superconducting sensors: hot-electron bolometers (HEB), HEB-mixers for terahertz range and infrared single-photon counters. These sensors have already demonstrated a performance that makes them devices-of-choice for many terahertz and optical applications. Keywords: Hot electron bolometer mixers, infrared single-photon detectors, superconducting device fabrication, superconducting NbN films.
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Goltsman, G. (2009). Superconducting NbN hot-electron bolometer mixer, direct detector and single-photon counter: from devices to systems.
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Smirnov, E., Golikov, A., Zolotov, P., Kovalyuk, V., Lobino, M., Voronov, B., et al. (2018). Superconducting nanowire single-photon detector on lithium niobate. In J. Phys.: Conf. Ser. (Vol. 1124, 051025).
Abstract: We demonstrate superconducting niobium nitride nanowires folded on top of lithium niobate substrate. We report of 6% system detection efficiency at 20 s−1 dark count rate at telecommunication wavelength (1550 nm). Our results shown great potential for the use of NbN nanowires in the field of linear and nonlinear integrated quantum photonics.
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Goltsman, G. N., Shcherbatenko, M. L., Lobanov, Y. V., Kovalyuk, V. V., Kahl, O., Ferrari, S., et al. (2016). Superconducting nanowire single photon detector for coherent detection of weak optical signals. In LPHYS'16 (pp. 1–2).
Abstract: Traditionally, photon detectors are operated in a direct detection mode counting incident photonswith a known quantum efficiency. This procedure allows one to detect weak sources of radiation but allthe information about its frequency is limited by the optical filtering/resonating structures used which arenot as precise as would be required for some practical applications. In this work we propose heterodynereceiver based on a photon counting mixer which would combine excellent sensitivity of a photon countingdetector and excellent spectral resolution given by the heterodyne technique. At present, Superconducting-Nanowire-Single-Photon-Detectors (SNSPDs) [1] are widely used in a variety of applications providing thebest possible combination of the sensitivity and speed. SNSPDs demonstrate lack of drawbacks like highdark count rate or autopulsing, which are common for traditional semiconductor-based photon detectors,such as avalanche photon diodes.In our study we have investigated SNSPD operated as a photon counting mixer. To fully understandits behavior in such a regime, we have utilized experimental setup based on a couple of distributedfeedback lasers irradiating at 1.5 micrometers, one of which is being the Local Oscillator (LO) and theother mimics the test signal [2]. The SNSPD was operated in the current mode and the bias currentwas slightly below of the critical current. Advantageously, we have found that LO power needed for anoptimal mixing is of the order of hundreds of femtowatts to a few picowatts, which is promising for manypractical applications, such as receiver matrices [3]. With use of the two lasers, one can observe thevoltage pulses produced by the detected photons, and the time distribution of the pulses reproduces thefrequency difference between the lasers, forming power response at the intermediate frequency which canbe captured by either an oscilloscope (an analysis of the pulse statistics is needed) or by an RF spectrumanalyzer. Photon-counting nature of the detector ensures quantum-limited sensitivity with respect to theoptical coupling achieved. In addition to the chip SNSPD with normal incidence coupling, we use thedetectors with a travelling wave geometry design [4]. In this case a NbN nanowire is placed on the topof a Si3N4 nanophotonic waveguide, thus increasing the efficient interaction length. For this reason it ispossible to achieve almost complete absorption of photons and reduce the detector footprint. This reducesthe noise of the device together with the expansion of the bandwidth. Integrated device scheme allowsus to measure the optical losses with high accuracy. Our approach is fully scalable and, along with alarge number of devices integrated on a single chip can be adapted to the mid and far IR ranges wherephoton-counting measurement may be beneficial as well [5].Acknowledgements: This work was supported in part by the Ministry of Education and Science of theRussian Federation, contract No. 14.B25.31.0007 and by RFBR grant No. 16-32-00465.
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Shurakov, A., Lobanov, Y., & Goltsman, G. (2015). Superconducting hot-electron bolometer: from the discovery of hot-electron phenomena to practical applications. Supercond. Sci. Technol., 29(2), 023001.
Abstract: The discovery of hot-electron phenomena in a thin superconducting film in the last century was followed by numerous experimental studies of its appearance in different materials aiming for a better understanding of the phenomena and consequent implementation of terahertz detection systems for practical applications. In contrast to the competitors such as superconductor-insulator-superconductor tunnel junctions and Schottky diodes, the hot electron bolometer (HEB) did not demonstrate any frequency limitation of the detection mechanism. The latter, in conjunction with a decent performance, rapidly made the HEB mixer the most attractive candidate for heterodyne observations at frequencies above 1 THz. The successful operation of practical instruments (the Heinrich Hertz Telescope, the Receiver Lab Telescope, APEX, SOFIA, Hershel) ensures the importance of the HEB technology despite the lack of rigorous theoretical routine for predicting the performance. In this review, we provide a summary of experimental and theoretical studies devoted to understanding the HEB physics, and an overview of various fabrication routes and materials.
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Goltsman, G. N., Korneev, A. A., Finkel, M. I., Divochiy, A. V., Florya, I. N., Korneeva, Y. P., et al. (2010). Superconducting hot-electron bolometer as THz mixer, direct detector and IR single-photon counter. In 35th Int. Conf. Infrared, Millimeter, and Terahertz Waves (p. 1).
Abstract: We present a new generation of superconducting single-photon detectors (SSPDs) and hot-electron superconducting sensors with record characteristic for many terahertz and optical applications.
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Titova, N., Kardakova, A., Tovpeko, N., Ryabchun, S., Mandal, S., Morozov, D., et al. (2017). Superconducting diamond films as perspective material for direct THz detectors. In Proc. 28th Int. Symp. Space Terahertz Technol. (82).
Abstract: Superconducting films with a high resistivity in the normal state have established themselves as the best materials for direct THz radiation sensors, such as kinetic inductance detectors (KIDs) [1] and hot electron bolometers (nano-HEBs) [2]. The primary characteristics of the future instrument such as the sensitivity and the response time are determined by the material parameters such as the electron-phonon (e-ph) interaction time, the electron density and the resistivity of the material. For direct detectors, such as KIDs and nano-HEBs, to provide a high sensitivity and low noise one prefer materials with long e-ph relaxation times and low values of the electron density. As a potential material for THz radiation detection we have studied superconducting diamond films. A significant interest to diamond for the development of electronic devices is due to the evolution of its properties with the boron dopant concentration. At a high boron doping concentration, n B ~5·10 20 cm -3 , diamond has been reported to become a superconducting with T c depending on the doping level. Our previous study of energy relaxation in single-crystalline boron-doped diamond films epitaxially grown on a diamond shows a remarkably slow energy-relaxation at low temperatures. The electron-phonon cooling time varies from 400 ns to 700 ns over the temperature range 2.2 K to 1.7 K [3]. In superconducting materials such as Al and TiN, traditionally used in KIDs, the e-ph cooling times at 1.7 K correspond to ~20 ns [4] and ~100 ns [5], correspondingly. Such a noticeable slow e-ph relaxation in boron-doped diamond, in combination with a low value of carrier density (~10 21 cm -3 ) in comparison with typical metals (~10 23 cm -3 ) and a high normal state resistivity (~1500 μΩ·cm) confirms a potential of superconducting diamond for superconducting bolometers and resonator detectors. However, the price and the small substrate growth are of single crystal diamond limit practical applications of homoepitaxial diamond films. As an alternative way with more convenient technology, one can employ heteroepitaxial diamond films grown on large-size Si substrates. Here we report about measurements of e-ph cooling times in superconducting diamond grown on silicon substrate and discuss our expectations about the applicability of boron-doped diamond films to superconducting detectors. Our estimation of limit value of noise-equivalent power (NEP) and the energy resolution of bolometer made from superconducting diamond is order 10 -17 W/Hz 1/2 at 2 K and the energy resolution is of 0.1 eV that corresponds to counting single-photon up to 15 um. The estimation was obtained by using the film thickness of 70 nm and ρ ~ 1500 μΩ·cm, and the planar dimensions that are chosen to couple bolometer with 75 Ω log-spiral antenna. Although the value of NEP is far yet from what might like to have for certain astronomical applications, we believe that it can be improved by a suitable fabrication process. Also the direct detectors, based on superconducting diamond, will offer low noise performance at about 2 K, a temperature provided by inexpensive close-cycle refrigerators, which provides another practical advantage of development and application of these devices. [1] P.K. Day, et. al, Nature, 425, 817, 2003. [2] J. Wei, et al, Nature Nanotech., 3, 496, 2008. [3] A. Kardakova, et al, Phys. Rev. B, 93, 064506, 2016. [4] P. Santhanam and D. Prober, Phys. Rev. B, 29, 3733, 1984 [5] A. Kardakova, et al, Appl. Phys. Lett, vol. 103, p. 252602, 2013.
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Vorobyov, V. V., Kazakov, A. Y., Soshenko, V. V., Korneev, A. A., Shalaginov, M. Y., Bolshedvorskii, S. V., et al. (2017). Superconducting detector for visible and near-infrared quantum emitters [Invited]. Opt. Mater. Express, 7(2), 513–526.
Abstract: Further development of quantum emitter based communication and sensing applications intrinsically depends on the availability of robust single-photon detectors. Here, we demonstrate a new generation of superconducting single-photon detectors specifically optimized for the 500–1100 nm wavelength range, which overlaps with the emission spectrum of many interesting solid-state atom-like systems, such as nitrogen-vacancy and silicon-vacancy centers in diamond. The fabricated detectors have a wide dynamic range (up to 350 million counts per second), low dark count rate (down to 0.1 counts per second), excellent jitter (62 ps), and the possibility of on-chip integration with a quantum emitter. In addition to performance characterization, we tested the detectors in real experimental conditions involving nanodiamond nitrogen-vacancy emitters enhanced by a hyperbolic metamaterial.
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Goltsman, G. N. (2006). Submillimeter superconducting receivers for astronomy, atmospheric studies and other applications. In 31nd IRMW / 14th ICTE (177).
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Nasr, M. B., Minaeva, O., Goltsman, G. N., Sergienko, A. V., Saleh, B. E., & Teich, M. C. (2008). Submicron axial resolution in an ultrabroadband two-photon interferometer using superconducting single-photon detectors. Opt. Express, 16(19), 15104–15108.
Abstract: We generate ultrabroadband biphotons via the process of spontaneous parametric down-conversion in a quasi-phase-matched nonlinear grating that has a linearly chirped poling period. Using these biphotons in conjunction with superconducting single-photon detectors (SSPDs), we measure the narrowest Hong-Ou-Mandel dip to date in a two-photon interferometer, having a full width at half maximum (FWHM) of approximately 5.7 fsec. This FWHM corresponds to a quantum optical coherence tomography (QOCT) axial resolution of 0.85 µm. Our results indicate that a high flux of nonoverlapping biphotons may be generated, as required in many applications of nonclassical light.
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Shcherbatenko, M. L., Elezov, M. S., Goltsman, G. N., & Sych, D. V. (2020). Sub-shot-noise-limited fiber-optic quantum receiver. Phys. Rev. A, 101(3), 032306 (1 to 5).
Abstract: We experimentally demonstrate a quantum receiver based on the Kennedy scheme for discrimination between two phase-modulated weak coherent states. The receiver is assembled entirely from standard fiber-optic elements and operates at a conventional telecom wavelength of 1.55 μm. The local oscillator and the signal are transmitted through different optical fibers, and the displaced signal is measured with a high-efficiency superconducting nanowire single-photon detector. We show the discrimination error rate is two times below that of a shot-noise-limited receiver with the same system detection efficiency.
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Pyatkov, F., Khasminskaya, S., Kovalyuk, V., Hennrich, F., Kappes, M. M., Goltsman, G. N., et al. (2017). Sub-nanosecond light-pulse generation with waveguide-coupled carbon nanotube transducers. Beilstein J. Nanotechnol., 8, 38–44.
Abstract: Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have recently been integrated into optical waveguides and operated as electrically-driven light emitters under constant electrical bias. Such devices are of interest for the conversion of fast electrical signals into optical ones within a nanophotonic circuit. Here, we demonstrate that waveguide-integrated single-walled CNTs are promising high-speed transducers for light-pulse generation in the gigahertz range. Using a scalable fabrication approach we realize hybrid CNT-based nanophotonic devices, which generate optical pulse trains in the range from 200 kHz to 2 GHz with decay times below 80 ps. Our results illustrate the potential of CNTs for hybrid optoelectronic systems and nanoscale on-chip light sources.
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Bakhvalova, T., Belkin, M. E., Kovalyuk, V. V., Prokhodtcov, A. I., Goltsman, G. N., & Sigov, A. S. (2019). Studying key principles for design and fabrication of silicon photonic-based beamforming networks. In PIERS-Spring (pp. 745–751).
Abstract: In the paper, we address key principles for computer-aided design and fabrication of silicon-photonics-based optical beamforming network selecting the optimal approach by simulation and experimental results. To clarify the consideration, the study is conducted on the example of a widely used binary switchable silicon-nitride optical beamforming network based on TriPleX platform. Comparison of simulation results and experimental studies of the prototype shows that the relative error due to technological imperfections does not exceed 3%. According to the estimation, such an error introduces insignificant distortion in the radiation pattern of the referred antenna array.
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