Korneeva, Y. P., Manova, N. N., Dryazgov, M. A., Simonov, N. O., Zolotov, P. I., & Korneev, A. A. (2021). Influence of sheet resistance and strip width on the detection efficiency saturation in micron-wide superconducting strips and large-area meanders. Supercond. Sci. Technol., 34(8), 084001.
Abstract: We report our study of detection efficiency (DE) saturation in wavelength range 400 – 1550 nm for the NbN Superconducting Microstrip Single-Photon Detectors (SMSPD) featuring the strip width up to 3 μm. We observe an expected decrease of the $DE$ saturation plateau with the increase of photon wavelength and decrease of film sheet resistance. At 1.7 K temperature DE saturation can be clearly observed at 1550 nm wavelength in strip with the width up to 2 μm when sheet resistance of the film is above 630Ω/sq. In such strips the length of the saturation plateau almost does not depend on the strip width. We used these films to make meander-shaped detectors with the light sensitive area from 20×20μm2 to a circle 50 μm in diameter. In the latter case, the detector with the strip width of 0.49 μm demonstrates saturation of DE up to 1064 nm wavelength. Although DE at 1310 and 1550 nm is not saturated, it is as high as 60%. The response time is limited by the kinetic inductance and equals to 20 ns(by 1/e decay), timing jitter is 44 ps. When coupled to multi-mode fibre large-area meanders demonstrate significantly higher dark count rate which we attribute to thermal background photons, thus advanced filtering technique would be required for practical applications.
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Hu, X., Zhong, T., White, J. E., Dauler, E. A. N., Faraz, Herder, C. H., Wong, F. N. C., et al. (2009). Fiber-coupled nanowire photon counter at 1550 nm with 24% system detection efficiency. Opt. Lett., 34(23), 3607–3609.
Abstract: We developed a fiber-coupled superconducting nanowire single-photon detector system in a close-cycled cryocooler and achieved 24% and 22% system detection efficiencies at wavelengths of 1550 and 1315 nm, respectively. The maximum dark count rate was ~1000 counts/s.
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Zolotov, P. I., Semenov, A. V., Divochiy, A. V., Goltsman, G. N., Romanov, N. R., & Klapwijk, T. M. (2021). Dependence of photon detection efficiency on normal-state sheet resistance in marginally superconducting films of NbN. IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond., 31(5), 1–5.
Abstract: We present an extensive set of data on nanowire-type superconducting single-photon detectors based on niobium-nitride (NbN) to establish the empirical correlation between performance and the normal-state resistance per square. We focus, in particular, on the bias current, compared to the expected depairing current, needed to achieve a near-unity detection efficiency for photon detection. The data are discussed within the context of a model in which the photon energy triggers the movement of vortices i.e. superconducting dissipation, followed by thermal runaway. Since the model is based on the non-equilibrium theory for conventional superconductors deviations may occur, because the efficient regime is found when NbN acts as a marginal superconductor in which long-range phase coherence is frustrated.
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Zolotov, P., Semenov, A., Divochiy, A., & Goltsman, G. (2021). A comparison of VN and NbN thin films towards optimal SNSPD efficiency. IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond., 31(5), 1–4.
Abstract: Based on early phenomenological ideas about the operation of superconducting single-photon detectors (SSPD or SNSPD), it was expected that materials with a lower superconducting gap should perform better in the IR range. The plausibility of this concept could be checked using two popular SSPD materials – NbN and WSi films. However, these materials differ strongly in crystallographic structure (polycrystalline B1 versus amorphous), which makes their dependence on disorder different. In our work we present a study of the single-photon response of SSPDs made from two disordered B1 structure superconductors – vanadium nitride and niobium nitride thin films. We compare the intrinsic efficiency of devices made from films with different sheet resistance values. While both materials have a polycrystalline structure and comparable diffusion coefficient values, VN films show metallic behavior over a wide range of sheet resistance, in contrast to NbN films with an insulator-like temperature dependence of resistivity, which may be partially due to enhanced Coulomb interaction, leading to different starting points for the normal electron density of states. The results show that even though VN devices are more promising in terms of theoretical predictions, their optimal performance was not reached due to lower values of sheet resistance.
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Smirnov, K., Divochiy, A., Vakhtomin, Y., Morozov, P., Zolotov, P., Antipov, A., et al. (2018). NbN single-photon detectors with saturated dependence of quantum efficiency. Supercond. Sci. Technol., 31(3), 035011 (1 to 8).
Abstract: The possibility of creating NbN superconducting single-photon detectors with saturated dependence of quantum efficiency (QE) versus normalized bias current was investigated. It was shown that the saturation increases for the detectors based on finer films with a lower value of Rs300/Rs20. The decreasing of Rs300/Rs20 was related to the increasing influence of quantum corrections to conductivity of superconductors and, in turn, to the decrease of the electron diffusion coefficient. The best samples have a constant value of system QE 94% at Ib/Ic ~ 0.8 and wavelength 1310 nm.
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Smirnov, K., Moshkova, M., Antipov, A., Morozov, P., & Vakhtomin, Y. (2021). The cascade switching of the photon number resolving superconducting single-photon detectors. IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond., 31(2), 1–4.
Abstract: In this article, present the first detailed study of cascade switching in superconducting photon number resolving detectors. The detectors were made in the form of four parallel nanowires, coupled with the single-mode optical fiber and mounted into a closed-cycle refrigerator with a temperature of 2.1 K. We found out the value of additional false pulses (N cas.sw. ) appearing due to cascade switching and showed that it is possible to set up the detector bias current that corresponds to a high level of the detection efficiency and a low level of N cas.sw. simultaneously. We reached the detection efficiency of 60% and N cas.sw. = 0.3%.
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Polyakova, M., Semenov, A. V., Kovalyuk, V., Ferrari, S., Pernice, W. H. P., & Gol'tsman, G. N. (2019). Protocol of measuring hot-spot correlation length for SNSPDs with near-unity detection efficiency. IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond., 29(5), 1–5.
Abstract: We present a simple quantum detector tomography protocol, which allows, without ambiguities, to measure the two-spot detection efficiency and extract the hot-spot interaction length of superconducting nanowire single photon detectors (SNSPDs) with unity intrinsic detection efficiency. We identify a significant parasitic contribution to the measured two-spot efficiency, related to an effect of the bias circuit, and find a way to rule out this contribution during data post-processing and directly in the experiment. From the data analysis for waveguide-integrated SNSPD, we find signatures of the saturation of the two-spot efficiency and hot-spot interaction length of order of 100 nm.
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Korneev, A., Korneeva, Y., Florya, I., Semenov, A., & Goltsman, G. (2018). Photon switching statistics in multistrip superconducting single-photon detectors. IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond., 28(7), 1–4.
Abstract: We study photon count statistics in superconducting single-photon detectors consisting of up to 70 narrow superconducting strips connected in parallel. Using interarrival time analysis, we demonstrate that our samples are operated in the “arm-trigger” regime and require up to seven subsequently absorbed photons to form a resistive state in the whole sample. We also performed numerical simulation of the light and dark count rates versus detector bias current, which are in good agreement with the experimental results.
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Korneeva, Y. P., Mikhailov, M. Y., Pershin, Y. P., Manova, N. N., Divochiy, A. V., Vakhtomin, Y. B., et al. (2014). Superconducting single-photon detector made of MoSi film. Supercond. Sci. Technol., 27(9), 095012.
Abstract: We fabricated and characterized nanowire superconducting single-photon detectors made of 4 nm thick amorphous Mox Si1−x films. At 1.7 K the best devices exhibit a detection efficiency (DE) up to 18% at 1.2 $\mu {\rm m}$ wavelength of unpolarized light, a characteristic response time of about 6 ns and timing jitter of 120 ps. The DE was studied in wavelength range from 650 nm to 2500 nm. At wavelengths below 1200 nm these detectors reach their maximum DE limited by photon absorption in the thin MoSi film.
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Lobanov, Y., Shcherbatenko, M., Semenov, A., Kovalyuk, V., Kahl, O., Ferrari, S., et al. (2017). Superconducting nanowire single photon detector for coherent detection of weak signals. IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond., 27(4), 1–5.
Abstract: Traditional photon detectors are operated in the direct detection mode, counting incident photons with a known quantum efficiency. Here, we have investigated a superconducting nanowire single photon detector (SNSPD) operated as a photon counting mixer at telecommunication wavelength around 1.5 μm. This regime of operation combines excellent sensitivity of a photon counting detector with excellent spectral resolution given by the heterodyne technique. Advantageously, we have found that low local oscillator (LO) power of the order of hundreds of femtowatts to a few picowatts is sufficient for clear observation of the incident test signal with the sensitivity approaching the quantum limit. With further optimization, the required LO power could be significantly reduced, which is promising for many practical applications, such as the development of receiver matrices or recording ultralow signals at a level of less-than-one-photon per second. In addition to a traditional NbN-based SNSPD operated with normal incidence coupling, we also use detectors with a travelling wave geometry, where a NbN nanowire is placed on the top of a Si 3 N 4 nanophotonic waveguide. This approach is fully scalable and a large number of devices could be integrated on a single chip.
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