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Verevkin AA, Pearlman A, Slysz W, Zhang J, Sobolewski R, Chulkova G, et al. Ultrafast superconducting single-photon detectors for infrared wavelength quantum communications. In: Donkor E, Pirich AR, Brandt HE, editors. Proc. SPIE. Vol 5105. SPIE; 2003. p. 160–70.
Abstract: We have developed a new class of superconducting single-photon detectors (SSPDs) for ultrafast counting of infrared (IR) photons for secure quantum communications. The devices are operated on the quantum detection mechanism, based on the photon-induced hotspot formation and subsequent appearance of a transient resistive barrier across an ultrathin and submicron-wide superconducting stripe. The detectors are fabricated from 3.5-nm-thick NbN films and they operate at 4.2 K inside a closed-cycle refrigerator or liquid helium cryostat. Various continuous and pulsed laser sources have been used in our experiments, enabling us to determine the detector experimental quantum efficiency (QE) in the photon-counting mode, response time, time jitter, and dark counts. Our 3.5-nm-thick SSPDs reached QE above 15% for visible light photons and 5% at 1.3 – 1.5 μm infrared range. The measured real-time counting rate was above 2 GHz and was limited by the read-out electronics (intrinsic response time is <30 ps). The measured jitter was <18 ps, and the dark counting rate was <0.01 per second. The measured noise equivalent power (NEP) is 2 x 10-18 W/Hz1/2 at λ = 1.3 μm. In near-infrared range, in terms of the counting rate, jitter, dark counts, and overall sensitivity, the NbN SSPDs significantly outperform their semiconductor counterparts. An ultrafast quantum cryptography communication technology based on SSPDs is proposed and discussed.
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Moshkova MA, Morozov PV, Antipov AV, Vakhtomin YB, Smirnov KV. High-efficiency multi-element superconducting single-photon detector. In: Prochazka I, Štefaňák M, Sobolewski R, Gábris A, editors. Proc. SPIE. Vol 11771. SPIE; 2021. p. 2–8.
Abstract: We present the result of the creation and investigation of the multi-element superconducting single photon detectors, which can recognize the number of photons (up to six) in a short pulse of the radiation at telecommunication wavelengths range. The best receivers coupled with single-mode fiber have the system quantum efficiency of ⁓85%. The receivers have a 100 ps time resolution and a few nanoseconds dead time that allows them to operate at megahertz counting rate. Implementation of the multi-element architecture for creation of the superconducting single photon detectors with increased sensitive area allows to create the high efficiency receivers coupled with multi-mode fibers and with preserving of the all advantages of superconducting photon counters.
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Schroeder E, Mauskopf P, Pilyavsky G, Sinclair A, Smith N, Bryan S, et al. On the measurement of intensity correlations from laboratory and astronomical sources with SPADs and SNSPDs. In: Malbet F, Creech-Eakman MJ, Tuthill PG, editors. Proc. SPIE. Vol 9907. SPIE; 2016. 99070P (1 to 13).
Abstract: We describe the performance of detector modules containing silicon single photon avalanche photodiodes (SPADs) and superconducting nanowire single photon detectors (SNSPDs) to be used for intensity interferometry. The SPADs are mounted in fiber-coupled and free-space coupled packages. The SNSPDs are mounted in a small liquid helium cryostat coupled to single mode fiber optic cables which pass through a hermetic feed-through. The detectors are read out with microwave amplifiers and FPGA-based coincidence electronics. We present progress on measurements of intensity correlations from incoherent sources including gas-discharge lamps and stars with these detectors. From the measured laboratory performance of the correlation system, we estimate the sensitivity to intensity correlations from stars using commercial telescopes and larger existing research telescopes.
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Zolotov P, Vakhtomin Y, Divochiy A, Morozov P, Seleznev V, Smirnov K. Development of fast and high-effective single-photon detector for spectrum range up to 2.3 μm. In: Proc. SPBOPEN.; 2017. p. 439–40.
Abstract: We present the results of development and testing of the single-photon-counting system operating in the wide spectrum rane up to 2.3 mcm. We managed to increase system detection efficiency up to 60% in the range of 1.7-2.3 mcm optimisation of the fabrication methods of superconducting single-photon detectors and application of the single-mode fiber with enlarged core diameter.
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Smirnov KV, Vakhtomin YB, Divochiy AV, Ozhegov RV, Pentin IV, Slivinskaya EV, et al. Single-photon detectors for the visible and infrared parts of the spectrum based on NbN nanostructures [abstract]. In: Proc. Progress In Electromagnetics Research Symp. Moscow, Russia; 2009. p. 863–4.
Abstract: The research by the group of Moscow State Pedagogical University into the hot-electron phenomena in thin superconducting films has led to the development of new types ofdetectors [1, 2] and their use both in fundamental and applied studies [3–6]. In this paper, wepresent the results of the development and fabrication of receiving systems for the visible andinfrared parts of the spectrum optimised for use in telecommunication systems and quantumcryptography.
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Ozhegov RV, Smirnov AV, Vakhtomin YB, Smirnov KV, Divochiy AV, Goltsman GN. Ultrafast superconducting bolometer receivers for terahertz applications [abstract]. In: Proc. PIERS. 777 Concord Avenue, Suite 207 Cambridge, MA 02138: The Electromagnetics Academy; 2009. 867.
Abstract: The research by the group of Moscow State Pedagogical University into the hot-electron phenomena in thin superconducting films has led to the development of new types of detectors and their use both in fundamental and applied studies. In this paper, we present the results of testing the terahertz HEB receiver systems based on ultrathin (∼ 4 nm) NbN and MoRe detectors with a response time of 50 ps and 1 ns, respectively. We have developed three types of devices which differ in the way a terahertz signal is coupled to the detector and cover the following ranges: 0.3–3 THz, 0.1–30 THz and 25–70 THz. In the case of the receiving system optimized for 0.3–3 THz, the sensitive element (a strip of asuperconductor with planar dimensions of 0.2μm (length) by 1.7μm (width)) was integrated witha planar broadband log-spiral antenna. For additional focusing ofthe incident radiation a silicon hyperhemispherical lens was used. For the 0.1–30 THz receivingsystem, the sensitive element was patterned as parallel strips(2μm wide each) filling an area of 500×500μm2with a filling factor of 0.5. In the receivingsystem of this type we used direct coupling of the incident radiation to the sensitive element. Inthe 25–70 THz range (detector type 2/2a in Table 1) we used a square-shaped superconductingdetector with planar dimensions of 10×10μm2. Incident radiation was coupled to the detectorwith the use of a germanium hyperhemispherical lens.The response time of the above receiving systems is determined by the cooling rate of the hotelectrons in the film. That depends on the electron-phonon interaction time, which is less forultrathin NbN than in MoRe.
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Gol'tsman G, Maslennikov S, Finkel M, Antipov S, Kaurova N, Grishina E, et al. Nanostructured ultrathin NbN film as a terahertz hot-electron bolometer mixer. In: Proc. MRS. Vol 935.; 2006. 210 (1 to 6).
Abstract: Planar spiral antenna coupled and directly lens coupled NbN HEB mixer structures are studied. An additional MgO buffer layer between the superconducting film and Si substrate is introduced. The buffer layer enables us to increase the gain bandwidth of a HEB mixer due to better acoustic transparency. The gain bandwidth is widened as NbN film thickness decreases and amounts to 5.2 GHz. The noise temperature of antenna coupled mixer is 1300 and 3100 K at 2.5 and 3.8 THz respectively. The structure and composition of NbN films is investigated by X-ray diffraction spectroscopy methods. Noise performance degradation at LO frequencies more than 3 THz is due to the use of a planar antenna and signal loss in contacts between the antenna and the sensitive NbN bridge. The mixer is reconfigured for operation at higher frequencies in a manner that receiver’s noise temperature is only 2300 K (3 times of quantum limit) at LO frequency of 30 THz.
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Ryabchun S, Smirnov A, Pentin I, Vakhtomin Y, Smirnov K, Kaurova N, et al. Superconducting single photon detector integrated with optical cavity. In: Proc. MLPLIT. Modern laser physics and laser-information technologies for science and manufacture; 2011. p. 143–5.
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Maslennikova A, Larionov P, Ryabchun S, Smirnov A, Pentin I, Vakhtomin Y, et al. Noise equivalent power and dynamic range of NBN hot-electron bolometers. In: Proc. MLPLIT. Modern laser physics and laser-information technologies for science and manufacture; 2011. p. 146–8.
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Semenov AD, Hübers H-W, Gol’tsman GN, Smirnov K. Superconducting quantum detector for astronomy and X-ray spectroscopy. In: Pekola J, Ruggiero B, Silvestrini P, editors. Proc. Int. Workshop on Supercond. Nano-Electronics Devices. : Springer; 2002. p. 201–10.
Abstract: We propose the novel concept of ultra-sensitive energy-dispersive superconducting quantum detectors prospective for applications in astronomy and X-ray spectroscopy. Depending on the superconducting material and operation conditions, such detector may allow realizing background limited noise equivalent power 10−21 W Hz−1/2 in the terahertz range when exposed to 4-K background radiation or counting of 6-keV photon with almost 10—4 energy resolution. Planar layout and relatively simple technology favor integration of elementary detectors into a detector array.
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