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Tarkhov M, Morozov D, Mauskopf P, Seleznev V, Korneev A, Kaurova N, et al. Single photon counting detector for THz radioastronomy. In: Proc. 17th Int. Symp. Space Terahertz Technol.; 2006. p. 119–22.
Abstract: In this paper we present the results of the research on the superconducting NbN-ultrathin-film single- photon detectors (SSPD) which are capable to detect single quanta in middle IR range. The detection mechanism is based on the hotspot formation in quasi-two-dimensional superconducting structures upon photon absorption. Spectral measurements showed that up to 5.7 gm wavelength (52 THz) the SSPD exhibits single-photon sensitivity. Reduction of operation temperature to 1.6 K allowed us to measure quantum efficiency of -4% at 60 THz. Although further decrease of the operation temperature far below 1 K does not lead to any significant increase of quantum efficiency. We expect that the improvement of the SSPD's performance at reduced operation temperature will make SSPD a practical detector with high characteristics for much lower THz frequencies as well.
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Słysz W, Wegrzecki M, Bar J, Grabiec P, Górska M, Zwiller V, et al. Fibre-coupled, single photon detector based on NbN superconducting nanostructures for quantum communications. J Modern Opt. 2007;54(2-3):315–26.
Abstract: We present a novel, two-channel, single photon receiver based on two fibre-coupled, NbN, superconducting, single photon detectors (SSPDs). The SSPDs are nanostructured superconducting meanders and are known for ultrafast and efficient detection of visible-to-infrared photons. Coupling between the NbN detector and optical fibre was achieved using a micromechanical photoresist ring placed directly over the SSPD, holding the fibre in place. With this arrangement, we obtained coupling efficiencies up to ∼30%. Our experimental results showed that the best receiver had a near-infrared system quantum efficiency of 0.33% at 4.2 K. The quantum efficiency increased exponentially with the photon energy increase, reaching a few percent level for visible-light photons. The photoresponse pulses of our devices were limited by the meander high kinetic inductance and had the rise and fall times of approximately 250 ps and 5 ns, respectively. The receiver's timing jitter was in the 37 to 58 ps range, approximately 2 to 3 times larger than in our older free-space-coupled SSPDs. We stipulate that this timing jitter is in part due to optical fibre properties. Besides quantum communications, the two-detector arrangement should also find applications in quantum correlation experiments.
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Slysz W, Wegrzecki M, Bar J, Grabiec P, Gorska M, Rieger E, et al. Fiber-coupled NbN superconducting single-photon detectors for quantum correlation measurements. In: Dusek M, Hillery MS, Schleich WP, Prochazka I, Migdall AL, Pauchard A, editors. Proc. SPIE. Vol 6583. Spie; 2007. 65830J (1 to 11).
Abstract: We have fabricated fiber-coupled superconducting single-photon detectors (SSPDs), designed for quantum-correlationtype experiments. The SSPDs are nanostructured ( 100-nm wide and 4-nm thick) NbN superconducting meandering stripes, operated in the 2 to 4.2 K temperature range, and known for ultrafast and efficient detection of visible to nearinfrared photons with almost negligible dark counts. Our latest devices are pigtailed structures with coupling between the SSPD structure and a single-mode optical fiber achieved using a micromechanical photoresist ring placed directly over the meander. The above arrangement withstands repetitive thermal cycling between liquid helium and room temperature, and we can reach the coupling efficiency of up to 33%. The system quantum efficiency, measured as the ratio of the photons counted by SSPD to the total number of photons coupled into the fiber, in our early devices was found to be around 0.3 % and 1% for 1.55 &mgr;m and 0.9 &mgr;m photon wavelengths, respectively. The photon counting rate exceeded 250 MHz. The receiver with two SSPDs, each individually biased, was placed inside a transport, 60-liter liquid helium Dewar, assuring uninterrupted operation for over 2 months. Since the receiver’s optical and electrical connections are at room temperature, the set-up is suitable for any applications, where single-photon counting capability and fast count rates are desired. In our case, it was implemented for photon correlation experiments. The receiver response time, measured as a second-order photon cross-correlation function, was found to be below 400 ps, with timing jitter of less than 40 ps.
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Reiger E, Pan D, Slysz W, Jukna A, Sobolewski R, Dorenbos S, et al. Spectroscopy with nanostructured superconducting single photon detectors. IEEE J Select Topics Quantum Electron. 2007;13(4):934–43.
Abstract: Superconducting single-photon detectors (SSPDs) are nanostructured devices made from ultrathin superconducting films. They are typically operated at liquid helium temperature and exhibit high detection efficiency, in combination with very low dark counts, fast response time, and extremely low timing jitter, within a broad wavelength range from ultraviolet to mid-infrared (up to 6 mu m). SSPDs are very attractive for applications such as fiber-based telecommunication, where single-photon sensitivity and high photon-counting rates are required. We review the current state-of-the-art in the SSPD research and development, and compare the SSPD performance to the best semiconducting avalanche photodiodes and other superconducting photon detectors. Furthermore, we demonstrate that SSPDs can also be successfully implemented in photon-energy-resolving experiments. Our approach is based on the fact that the size of the hotspot, a nonsuperconducting region generated upon photon absorption, is linearly dependent on the photon energy. We introduce a statistical method, where, by measuring the SSPD system detection efficiency at different bias currents, we are able to resolve the wavelength of the incident photons with a resolution of 50 nm.
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Jukna A, Kitaygorsky J, Pan D, Cross A, Perlman A, Komissarov I, et al. Dynamics of hotspot formation in nanostructured superconducting stripes excited with single photons. Acta Physica Polonica A. 2008;113(3):955–8.
Abstract: Dynamics of a resistive hotspot formation by near-infrared-wavelength single photons in nanowire-type superconducting NbN stripes was investigated. Numerical simulations of ultrafast thermalization of photon-excited nonequilibrium quasiparticles, their multiplication and out-diffusion from a site of the photon absorption demonstrate that 1.55 μm wavelength photons create in an ultrathin, two-dimensional superconducting film a resistive hotspot with the diameter which depends on the photon energy, and the nanowire temperature and biasing conditions. Our hotspot model indicates that under the subcritical current bias of the 2D stripe, the electric field penetrates the superconductor at the hotspot boundary, leading to suppression of the stripe superconducting properties and accelerated development of a voltage transient across the stripe.
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Okunev O, Chulkova G, Milostnaya I, Antipov A, Smirnov K, Morozov D, et al. Registration of infrared single photons by a two-channel receiver based on fiber-coupled superconducting single-photon detectors. In: Sukhoivanov IA, Svich VA, Shmaliy YS, editors. Proc. SPIE. Vol 7009. SPIE; 2008. 70090V (1 to 8).
Abstract: Single-photon detectors (SPDs) are the foundation of all quantum communications (QC) protocols. Among different classes of SPDs currently studied, NbN superconducting SPDs (SSPDs) are established as the best devices for ultrafast counting of single photons in the infrared (IR) wavelength range. The SSPDs are nanostructured, 100 μm2 in total area, superconducting meanders, patterned by electron lithography in ultra-thin NbN films. Their operation has been explained within a phenomenological hot-electron photoresponse model. We present the design and performance of a novel, two-channel SPD receiver, based on two fiber-coupled NbN SSPDs. The receivers have been developed for fiber-based QC systems, operational at 1.3 μm and 1.55 μm telecommunication wavelengths. They operate in the temperature range from 4.2 K to 2 K, in which the NbN SSPDs exhibit their best performance. The receiver unit has been designed as a cryostat insert, placed inside a standard liquid-heliumstorage dewar. The input of the receiver consists of a pair of single-mode optical fibers, equipped with the standard FC connectors and kept at room temperature. Coupling between the SSPD and the fiber is achieved using a specially designed, precise micromechanical holder that places the fiber directly on top of the SSPD nanostructure. Our receivers achieve the quantum efficiency of up to 7% for near-IR photons, with the coupling efficiency of about 30%. The response time was measured to be < 1.5 ns and it was limited by our read-out electronics. The jitter of fiber-coupled SSPDs is < 35 ps and their dark-count rate is below 1s-1. The presented performance parameters show that our single-photon receivers are fully applicable for quantum correlation-type QC systems, including practical quantum cryptography.
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Smirnov KV, Vachtomin YB, Ozhegov RV, Pentin IV, Slivinskaya EV, Korneev AA, et al. Fiber coupled single photon receivers based on superconducting detectors for quantum communications and quantum cryptography. In: Tománek P, Senderáková D, Hrabovský M, editors. Proc. SPIE. Vol 7138. Spie; 2008. 713827 (1 to 6).
Abstract: At present superconducting detectors become increasingly attractive for various practical applications. In this paper we present results on the depelopment of fiber coupled receiver systems for the registration of IR single photons, optimized for telecommunication and quantum-cryptography. These receiver systems were developed on the basis of superconducting single photon detectors (SSPD) of VIS and IR wavelength ranges. The core of the SSPD is a narrow ( 100 nm) and long ( 0,5 mm) strip in the form of a meander which is patterned from a 4-nm-thick NbN film (TC=10-11 K, jC= 5-7•106 A/cm2); the sensitive area dimensions are 10×10 μm2. The main problem to be solved while the receiver system development was optical coupling of a single-mode fiber (9 microns in diameter) with the SSPD sensitive area. Characteristics of the developed system at the optical input are as follows: quantum efficiency >10 % (at 1.3 μm), >4 % (at 1.55 μm); dark counts rate ≤1 s-1; duration of voltage pulse ≤5 ns; jitter ≤40 ps. The receiver systems have either one or two identical channels (for the case of carrying out correlation measurements) and are made as an insert in a helium storage Dewar.
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Minaeva O, Divochiy A, Korneev A, Sergienko AV, Goltsman GN. High speed infrared photon counting with photon number resolving superconducting single-photon detectors (SSPDs). In: CLEO/Europe – EQEC.; 2009.
Abstract: A review of development and characterization of the nanostructures consisting of several meander sections, all connected in parallel was presented. Such geometry leads to a significant decrease of the kinetic inductance, without a decrease of the SSPD active area. A new type of SSPDs possess the QE of large-active- area devices, but, simultaneously, allows achieving short response times and the GHz-counting rate. This new generation of superconducting detectors has another significant advantage for quantum key distribution, they have a photon number resolving capability and can distinguish more photons.
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Korneev A, Korneeva Y, Florya I, Voronov B, Goltsman G. Spectral sensitivity of narrow strip NbN superconducting single-photon detector. In: Fiurásek J, Prochazka I, editors. Proc. SPIE. Vol 8072. SPIE; 2011. 80720G (1 to 9).
Abstract: Superconducting single-photon detector (SSPD) is patterned from 4-nm-thick NbN film deposited on sapphire substrate as a 100-nm-wide strip. Due to its high detection efficiency, low dark counts, and picosecond timing jitter SSPD has become a competitor to the InGaAs avalanche photodiodes at 1550 nm and longer wavelengths. Although the SSPD is operated at liquid helium temperature its efficient single-mode fibre coupling enabled its usage in many applications ranging from single-photon sources research to quantum cryptography. In our strive to increase the detection efficiency at 1550 nm and longer wavelengths we developed and fabricated SSPD with the strip almost twice narrower compared to the standard 100 nm. To increase the voltage response of the device we utilized cascade switching mechanism: we connected 50-nm-wide and 10-μm-long strips in parallel covering the area of 10 μmx10 μm. Absorption of a photon breaks the superconductivity in a strip leading to the bias current redistribution between other strips followed their cascade switching. As the total current of all the strips about is 1 mA by the order of magnitude the response voltage of such an SSPD is several times higher compared to the traditional meander-shaped SSPDs. In middle infrared (about 3 μm wavelength) these devices have the detection efficiency several times higher compared to the traditional SSPDs.
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Korneev A, Korneeva Y, Florya I, Voronov B, Goltsman G. NbN nanowire superconducting single-photon detector for mid-infrared. Phys Procedia. 2012;36:72–6.
Abstract: Superconducting single-photon detectors (SSPD) is typically 100 nm-wide supercondiucting strip in a shape of meander made of 4-nm-thick film. To reduce response time and increase voltage response a parallel connection of the strips was proposed. Recently we demonstrated that reduction of the strip width improves the quantum effciency of such a detector at wavelengths longer than 1.5 μm. Being encourage by this progress in quantum effciency we improved the fabrication process and made parallel-wire SSPD with 40-nm-wide strips covering total area of 10 μm x 10 μm. In this paper we present the results of the characterization of such a parallel-wire SSPD at 10.6 μm wavelength and demonstrate linear dependence of the count rate on the light power as it should be in case of single-photon response.
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