Chulkova, G., Milostnaya, I., Korneev, A., Minaeva, O., Rubtsova, I., Voronov, B., et al. (2005). Superconducting nanostructures for counting of single photons in the infrared range. In Proc. 2-nd CAOL (Vol. 2, pp. 100–103).
Abstract: We present our studies on ultrafast superconducting single-photon detectors (SSPDs) based on ultrathin NbN nanostructures. Our SSPDs are patterned by electron beam lithography from 4-nm thick NbN film into meander-shaped strips covering square area of 10/spl times/10 /spl mu/m/sup 2/. The advances in the fabrication technology allowed us to produce highly uniform 100-120-nm-wide strips with meander filling factor close to 0.6. The detectors exploit a combined detection mechanism, where upon a single-photon absorption, an avalanche of excited hot electrons and the biasing supercurrent, jointly produce a picosecond voltage transient response across the superconducting nanostrip. The SSPDs are typically operated at 4.2 K, but they have shown that their sensitivity in the infrared radiation range can be significantly improved by lowering the operating temperature from 4.2 K to 2 K. When operated at 2 K, the SSPD quantum efficiency (QE) for visible light photons reaches 30-40%, which is the saturation value limited by optical absorption of our 4-nm-thick NbN film. For 1.55 /spl mu/m photons, QE was /spl sim/20% and decreases exponentially with the increase of the optical wavelength, but even at the wavelength of 6 /spl mu/m the detector remains sensitive to single photons and exhibits QE of about 10/sup -2/%. The dark (false) count rate at 2 K is as low as 2 /spl times/ 10/sup -4/ s/sup -1/, what makes our detector essentially a background-limited sensor. The very low dark-count rate results in the noise equivalent power (NEP) as low as 10/sup -18/ WHz/sup -1/2/ for the mid-infrared range (6 /spl mu/m). Further improvement of the SSPD performance in the mid-infrared range can be obtained by substituting NbN for the other, lower-T/sub c/ superconductors with the narrow superconducting gap and low quasiparticle diffusivity. The use of such materials will shift the cutoff wavelength towards the values even longer than 6 /spl mu/m.
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Gol’tsman, G., Okunev, O., Chulkova, G., Lipatov, A., Dzardanov, A., Smirnov, K., et al. (2001). Fabrication and properties of an ultrafast NbN hot-electron single-photon detector. IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond., 11(1), 574–577.
Abstract: A new type of ultra-high-speed single-photon counter for visible and near-infrared wavebands based on an ultrathin NbN hot-electron photodetector (HEP) has been developed. The detector consists of a very narrow superconducting stripe, biased close to its critical current. An incoming photon absorbed by the stripe produces a resistive hotspot and causes an increase in the film’s supercurrent density above the critical value, leading to temporary formation of a resistive barrier across the device and an easily measurable voltage pulse. Our NbN HEP is an ultrafast (estimated response time is 30 ps; registered time, due to apparatus limitations, is 150 ps), frequency unselective device with very large intrinsic gain and negligible dark counts. We have observed sequences of output pulses, interpreted as single-photon events for very weak laser beams with wavelengths ranging from 0.5 /spl mu/m to 2.1 /spl mu/m and the signal-to-noise ratio of about 30 dB.
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Dauler, E., Kerman, A., Robinson, B., Yang, J., Voronov, B., Goltsman, G., et al. (2009). Photon-number-resolution with sub-30-ps timing using multi-element superconducting nanowire single photon detectors. J. Modern Opt., 56(2), 364–373.
Abstract: A photon-number-resolving detector based on a four-element superconducting nanowire single photon detector is demonstrated to have sub-30-ps resolution in measuring the arrival time of individual photons. This detector can be used to characterize the photon statistics of non-pulsed light sources and to mitigate dead-time effects in high-speed photon counting applications. Furthermore, a 25% system detection efficiency at 1550 nm was demonstrated, making the detector useful for both low-flux source characterization and high-speed photon-counting and quantum communication applications. The design, fabrication and testing of this detector are described, and a comparison between the measured and theoretical performance is presented.
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Korneev, A., Golt'sman, G., & Pernice, W. (2015). Photonic integration meets single-photon detection (Vol. 51).
Abstract: By embedding superconducting nanowire single-photon detectors (SNSPDs) in nanophotonic circuits, these waveguide-integrated detectors are a key building block for future on-chip quantum computing applications.
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Zhang, J., Boiadjieva, N., Chulkova, G., Deslandes, H., Gol'tsman, G. N., Korneev, A., et al. (2003). Noninvasive CMOS circuit testing with NbN superconducting single-photon detectors. Electron. Lett., 39(14), 1086–1088.
Abstract: The 3.5 nm thick-film, meander-structured NbN superconducting single-photon detectors have been implemented in the CMOS circuit-testing system based on the detection of near-infrared photon emission from switching transistors and have significantly improved the performance of the system. Photon emissions from both p- and n-MOS transistors have been observed.
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Корнеева, Ю. П., Трифонов, А. В., Вахтомин, Ю. Б., Смирнов, К. В., Корнеев, А. А., Рябчун, С. А., et al. (2012). Расчет согласующего оптического резонатора для сверхпроводникового нанополоскового детектора. Преподаватель ХХI век, (3), 225–227.
Abstract: В статье произведен расчет резонатора, предназначенного для согласования сверхпроводникового нанополоскового однофотонного детектора с оптическим сигналом. Показано, что для детектора, выполненного из пленки с типичным сопротивлением квадрата 500 Ом и коэффициентом заполнения 0.5 коэффициент согласования с излучением, поляризованным параллельно полоскам детектора, достигает величины около 60%.
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Чулкова, Г. М., Семёнов, А. В., Тархов, М. А., Гольцман, Г. Н., Корнеев, А. А., & Смирнов, К. В. (2012). О возможности использования PNR-SNPD в системах телекоммуникационной связи. Преподаватель ХХI век, (2), 244–246.
Abstract: Рассмотрена возможность применения сверхпроводникового нанополоскового детектора, разрешающего число фотонов (Photon-Number Resolving Superconducting Nanowire Photon Detector, PNR-SNPD), в качестве датчика приёмных модулей телекоммуникационных линий. Оценена мощность оптического импульса, необходимая для достижения приемлемо низкой доли ошибочных битов.
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Пентин, И. В., Смирнов, К. В., Вахтомин, Ю. Б., Смирнов, А. В., Ожегов, Р. В., Дивочий, А. В., et al. (2011). Быстродействующий терагерцевый приемник и инфракрасный счетчик одиночных фотонов на эффекте разогрева электронов в сверхпроводниковых тонкопленочных наноструктурах. Труды МФТИ, 3(2), 38–42.
Abstract: Представлены результаты создания приемных систем терагерцевого диапазона (0.3-70 ТГц), обладающих рекордным быстродействием (50 пс) и высокой чувствительностью (до 5x 10^(-14) Вт/Гц^(1/2)), а также однофотонных приемных систем ближнего инфракрасного диапазона с квантовой эффективностью 25 %, уровнем темнового счета 10-1c., максимальной скоростью счета ~ 100 МГц и временным разрешением до 50 пс.
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Okunev, O., Smirnov, K., Chulkova, G., Korneev, A., Lipatov, A., Gol'tsman, G., et al. (2002). Ultrafast NBN hot-electron single-photon detectors for electronic applications. In Abstracts 8-th IUMRS-ICEM.
Abstract: We present a new, simple to manufacture, single-photon detector (SPD), which can work from ultraviolet to near-infrared wavelengths of optical radiation and combines high speed of operation, high quantum efficiency (QE), and very low dark counts. The devices are superconducting and operate at temperature below 5 K. The physics of operation of our SPD is based on formation of a photon-induced resistive hotspot and subsequent appearance of a transient resistive barrier across an ultrathin and submicron-wide superconductor.
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Chulkova, G., Milostnaya, I., Tarkhov, M., Korneev, A., Minaeva, O., Voronov, B., et al. (2006). Superconducting single-photon nanostructured detectors for advanced optical applications. In Proc. Symposium on Photonics Technologies for 7th Framework Program (Vol. 400).
Abstract: We present superconducting single-photon detectors (SSPDs) based on NbN thin-film nanostructures and operated at liquid helium temperatures. The SSPDs are made of ultrathin NbN films (2.5-4 nm thick, Tc= 9-11K) as meander-shaped nanowires covering the area of 10× 10 µm2. Our detectors are operated at the temperature well below the critical temperature Tc and are DC biased by a current Ib close to the meander critical current Ic. The operation principle of the detector is based on the use of the resistive region in a narrow ultra-thin superconducting stripe upon the absorption of an incident photon. The developed devices demonstrate high sensitivity and response speed in a broadband range from UV to mid-IR (up to 6 µm), making them very attractive for advanced optical technologies, which require efficient detectors of single quanta and low-density optical radiation.
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Korneeva, Y. P., Vodolazov, D. Y., Semenov, A. V., Florya, I. N., Simonov, N., Baeva, E., et al. (2018). Optical single photon detection in micron-scaled NbN bridges. arXiv:1802.02881v1 [cond-mat.supr-con].
Abstract: We demonstrate experimentally that single photon detection can be achieved in micron-wide NbN bridges, with widths ranging from 0.53 μm to 5.15 μm and for photon-wavelengths from 408 nm to 1550 nm. The microbridges are biased with a dc current close to the experimental critical current, which is estimated to be about 50 % of the theoretically expected depairing current. These results offer an alternative to the standard superconducting single-photon detectors (SSPDs), based on nanometer scale nanowires implemented in a long meandering structure. The results are consistent with improved theoretical modelling based on the theory of non-equilibrium superconductivity including the vortex-assisted mechanism of initial dissipation.
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Kahl, O., Ferrari, S., Kovalyuk, V., Vetter, A., Lewes-Malandrakis, G., Nebel, C., et al. (2016). Spectrally resolved single-photon imaging with hybrid superconducting – nanophotonic circuits. arXiv:1609.07857v1 [physics.ins-det].
Abstract: The detection of individual photons is an inherently binary mechanism, revealing either their absence or presence while concealing their spectral information. For multi-color imaging techniques, such as single photon spectroscopy, fluorescence resonance energy transfer microscopy and fluorescence correlation spectroscopy, wavelength discrimination is essential and mandates spectral separation prior to detection. Here, we adopt an approach borrowed from quantum photonic integration to realize a compact and scalable waveguide-integrated single-photon spectrometer capable of parallel detection on multiple wavelength channels, with temporal resolution below 50 ps and dark count rates below 10 Hz. We demonstrate multi-detector devices for telecommunication and visible wavelengths and showcase their performance by imaging silicon vacancy color centers in diamond nanoclusters. The fully integrated hybrid superconducting-nanophotonic circuits enable simultaneous spectroscopy and lifetime mapping for correlative imaging and provide the ingredients for quantum wavelength division multiplexing on a chip.
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Sidorova, M. V., Kozorezov, A. G., Semenov, A. V., Korneev, A. A., Chulkova, G. M., Korneeva, Y. P., et al. (2018). Non-bolometric bottleneck in electron-phonon relaxation in ultra-thin WSi film. arXiv:1607.07321v4 [physics.ins-det].
Abstract: We developed the model of the internal phonon bottleneck to describe the energy exchange between the acoustically soft ultrathin metal film and acoustically rigid substrate. Discriminating phonons in the film into two groups, escaping and nonescaping, we show that electrons and nonescaping phonons may form a unified subsystem, which is cooled down only due to interactions with escaping phonons, either due to direct phonon conversion or indirect sequential interaction with an electronic system. Using an amplitude-modulated absorption of the sub-THz radiation technique, we studied electron-phonon relaxation in ultrathin disordered films of tungsten silicide. We found an experimental proof of the internal phonon bottleneck. The experiment and simulation based on the proposed model agree well, resulting in tau{e-ph} = 140-190 ps at TC = 3.4 K, supporting the results of earlier measurements by independent techniques.
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Murphy, A., Semenov, A., Korneev, A., Korneeva, Y., Gol’tsman, G., & Bezryadin, A. (2014). Dark counts initiated by macroscopic quantum tunneling in NbN superconducting photon detectors. arXiv:1410.7689v2 [cond-mat.supr-con].
Abstract: We perform measurements of the switching current distributions of three w = 120 nm wide, 4 nm thick NbN superconducting strips which are used for single-photon detectors. These strips are much wider than the diameter the vortex cores, so they are classified as quasi-two-dimensional (quasi-2D). We discover evidence of macroscopic quantum tunneling by observing the saturation of the standard deviation of the switching distributions at temperatures around 2 K. We analyze our results using the Kurkijarvi-Garg model and find that the escape temperature also saturates at low temperatures, confirming that at sufficiently low temperatures, macroscopic quantum tunneling is possible in quasi-2D strips and can contribute to dark counts observed in single photon detectors.
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Pernice, W., Schuck, C., Minaeva, O., Li, M., Goltsman, G. N., Sergienko, A. V., et al. (2012). High speed and high efficiency travelling wave single-photon detectors embedded in nanophotonic circuits (Vol. 1108.5299). arXiv:1108.5299v2 [physics.optics].
Abstract: Ultrafast, high quantum efficiency single photon detectors are among the most sought-after elements in modern quantum optics and quantum communication. High photon detection efficiency is essential for scalable measurement-based quantum computation, quantum key distribution, and loophole-free Bell experiments. However, imperfect modal matching and finite photon absorption rates have usually limited the maximum attainable detection efficiency of single photon detectors. Here we demonstrate a superconducting nanowire detector atop nanophotonic waveguides which allows us to drastically increase the absorption length for incoming photons. When operating the detectors close to the critical current we achieve high on-chip single photon detection efficiency up to 91% at telecom wavelengths, with uncertainty dictated by the variation of the waveguide photon flux. We also observe remarkably low dark count rates without significant compromise of detection efficiency. Furthermore, our detectors are fully embedded in a scalable silicon photonic circuit and provide ultrashort timing jitter of 18ps. Exploiting this high temporal resolution we demonstrate ballistic photon transport in silicon ring resonators. The direct implementation of such a detector with high quantum efficiency, high detection speed and low jitter time on chip overcomes a major barrier in integrated quantum photonics.
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